LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 






5helf.."Y^*Vi!>5 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



NORTON'S EDITION" 



Progressive English Smhar, 



ELIiUSTRATED WITH COPIOUS EXERCISES US' 



ANALYSIS, PARSING, AND COMPOSITION. 



ADAPTED TO SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES 



OI" BVERY GBADE. 



By ALLEN H. WELD, LL. D., 

AND OTHER EXPERIEjSrCED TEACHERS. 
/ . ^ 7 \ I B^JSED BY 

/ ' SIDNEY A/t^OETON, A.M., M.D.^ 

Professor of Chemistry, 
Olxio -A^grioTiltiaral and. Mledianioal Colleg 

PORTLAND, ME.: V^v ^^^'^"^ ,^o^/ 
PUBLISHED BY BAILEY & NOl 
OGDENSBURG, N. Y., H. F. LAWRENCE. 



Dm 






6,(5^ 



Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1863, by 

O. L. SANBORN, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Maine. 



Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1876, by 

Bailey & Noyes, 

in the office of the Librarian of Congress, at "Washington, D, C. 



B. THURSTON & CO., 
PKINTEBS AND STEKEOTYPERS, PORTLAND, MB, 



QUACKENBOS'S PREFACE. 



Ten years have elapsed since Weld's "New English Grammar/* 
revised by its author, was presented to the public. Well received as 
it has been from its first appearance, and still enjoying an extended 
cu'culation, the Publishers have felt it due to the -large circle of intelli- 
gent teachers who have made it their standard text-book on Grammar, 
to render it still more deserving of their confidence by subjecting every 
part to a critical revision, improving the plan wherever the experience 
of the school-room showed it to be necessary, and incorporating with 
it such meritorious features as the recent advances in school-book litera- 
ture have developed. 

This work has been intrusted to the undersigned, and in performing 
it he trusts that he has contributed to the usefulness of the book, and 
removed some of the difiiculties which always obstruct the young learn- 
er's path when entering on the study of language. The fundamental 
features of Weld's system, such as the number and divisions of the 
parts of speech, the technical nomenclature employed, &c., it was not 
his province, as editor, to touch ; but for the present arrangement, the 
system of analysis introduced, the new matter added to make the work 
m his view complete, and the general character of the whole as regards 
adaptation to the school-room, he alone is responsible. 

No teacher, of course, will use this book without previously exam- 
ining it ; and it is preferred that its distinguishing features should 
speak for themselves on such examination, rather than be heralded in 
a lengthy Preface. Suffice it here to say, that the chief aim throughout 



iv QUACKENBOS^S PREFACE. 

has been to present the subject in a clear, simple, and intelligible light ; 
to make a text-book on Grammar which could be understood by the 
youthful beginner, while it should be sufficiently comprehensive for 
advanced classes. It has been sought to command the pupil's attention 
from the outset, by showing him that he is not dealing with dry ab- 
stractions, but with familiar realities which he uses every moment ; to 
interest him in words by means of the thoughts that they express ; and 
to make him, to a certain extent, comprehend their relations as com- 
bined in sentences, before considering them separately. This is the 
object of the simple Lessons with which the volume commences. 

In the rules and definitions, clearness is aimed at, and verbiage 
avoided. Exercises of a practical character have been introduced 
wherever opportunity offered ; and in these, the principles laid down 
are applied synthetically as well as analytically, from the conviction 
that it is chiefly for synthetic application — that is, the construction 
of sentences spoken or written — that a knowledge of Grammar is 
needed. With the same view of enhancing the practical value of the 
work, the portion relating to Punctuation has been extended, and 
particular attention given to the department of False Syntax. The 
importance of saving the teacher time and labor, by presenting every- 
thing so distinctly as to require little or no oral explanation, has been 
kept in view throughout. It is hardly necessary to say, that the best 
authorities have been consulted, and that a proper use has been made 
of Avhatever seemed good in other systems. 

Should an extended course of Parsing be desired, it will be found 
in Weld's Parsing-Book, wliich has been adapted to the present vol- 
• un>e; but it is trusted that this Grammar will, of itself, be found to 
cover the ground completely and satisfactorily. 

GEORGE PAYN QUACKENBOS. 

New York, August 1, 1859. 



CONTENTS. 



INTEODUCTION. 
Lessoic . Faob 
I. — The Use of Words 7 

n. — The Use of Words (continued) 9 

m. — The Use of Words (cowimwed) . . . . . .10 

IV. — Division of the Subject . 11 

PART I. — SENTENCES. 
v. — Declarative Sentences. — Interrogative Sentences . . .13 

VI. — Imperative Sentences. — Exclamatory Sentences . . 15 

VII. — Exercise on Sentences 17 

VIIL — The Subject 18 

IX. — The Logical Subject. — The Grammatical Subject . . 20 

X. — The Predicate 22 

XI. — Exercise on Subject and Predicate 23 

Xn. — Simple Sentences. — Complex Sentences. — Compound Sen- 
tences 24 

Xm. — Diflerent Kinds of Compound and Complex Sentences . 26 
XIV. — Copula. — Attribute. — Logical Predicate. — Grammatical 

Predicate 28 

XV, — Models of Analysis 30 

XVI. — Exercise in Analysis 32 

XVn. — Eeview Questions 33 

PART n. — WORDS. 

Chapteb 

I. — Classification of Words • .34 

IL — The Noun 40 

III. — The Pronoun 59 

IV. — The Adjective 70 

v.— The Verb 85 

Participles 97 

Conjugation of the Verb . . . • . . . . Ill 
List of IiTegular Verbs 120 



Vi CONTENTS. 

Chaptkb Pack 

VL — The Adverb .•••«♦•••. 131 

VII. — The Preposition 137 

VIII.— The Conjunction . • • • 140 

IX. — The Interjection 143 

PART III. — COMBINATION OF WORDS IN SENTENCES. 

X. — The Elements of Sentences 146 

Classification of Clauses ••••••• 150 

Classification of Phrases 153 

Contracted Elements ••••••• 154 

Modification of Words .•••••• 155 

Form? for Parsing and Analysis • • • • • 157 

XI. — The Rules of Syntax .166 

General Exercises •••••••• 218 

XII.— Punctuation . • • . 224 

PART IV. — LETTERS. 

XIII. — Classes, Sounds, and Combinations of Letters . , • 233 

XIV. — Spelling 239 

List of Prefixes 240 

List of Suffixes 242 

PART v. — COMPOSITION. 

XV. — Exercises in Description • • 246 

Exercises in Essay-writing ..••••. 256 

PART VL — PROSODY. 

XVI. — Kinds of Verse ,261 

Iambic Verse • . 263 

Trochaic Verse 265 

Anapestic Verse 266 

Amphibrachic Verse ••••••. 267 

Dactylic Verse 268 

,XVIL — Figures 268 

Synopsis of Gra:mmatical Relations ...... 274 

Appendix •••• 276 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INTRODUCTION. 
LESSON I. 

THB USB OP WOKDS. 

Adam and Eve, our first parents, -were placed by their Cre- 
ator in the beautiful garden of Eden, but soon lost it by their dis- 
obedience. 

Learn the words given above. 
Of whom is something said? 

Of Adam and Eve, 

Who were Adam and Eve ? 
Our first parents. 

Whose first parents ? 

Our first parents; tlie first parents of you and me 
and all mankind. 

What is said of Adam and Eve ? 

They were placed somewhere. 

Where were they placed? 

In the garden. 

In what garden? 

In the garden of Eden, 

What kind of a garden was it? 

A beautiful garden. 



8 THE USE OF WORDS, 

What further is said about Adam and Eve? 

They lost it. 

What did they lose? 

It^ the garden of Eden. 

When did they lose it ? 

They soon lost it. 

How did they lose it ? 

By disobedience. 

By whose disobedience ? 

By their disobedience, — that is, Adam and Eve's 
disobedience. 

Repeat the words that stand at the commencement of the lesson. 
Why are the words Adam and Eve used in this sentence ? 

To tell us who were placed in this garden. 

Why is the word and used ? 

To connect Adam and Eve. 

Why are the words our first parents used ? 

To tell who Adam and Eve were. 

Why are the words werejflaced used? 

To tell what was done with Adam and Eve, 

Why are the words in the garden used ? 

To tell where Adam and Eve were placed. 

Why are the words of Eden used ? 

To tell what garden they were placed in. 

Why is the word beautiful used ? 

To tell what kind of a garden it was. 

Why are the words by their Creator used? 

To tell by whom they were placed in this garden. 

Why are the words hst it used ? 

To tell something more about Adam and Eve. 

Why is the word soon used ? 

To tell when they lost it. 

Why are the words by their disobedience used ? 

To tell how they lost it. 



THE USE OP WORDS. If 

LESSON II. 

THE USE OF WOEDS (cONTIKUED). 

Washington, the father of his country, was bom in Virginia, 
in 1732. 

Learn the words given above. Of whom is something said? What 
was Washington ? The father of what ? The father of whose country ? 
Whose country is meant by Ms country ? 

What is said of Washington ? 

Where was he bom ? When was he bom ? 

Eepeat the words that stand at the cooMnencement of the lesson. 

Why is the word WasTiington used? 

To tell us who was born in Yirginia in 1732. 

Why are the v/ords the father of his country used? 

To tell us what Washington was. 

Why are the words his country used ? 

To tell us what he was the father of. 

Why is the word his used before country ? 

To tell us whose country he was the father of. 

Why are the words was born used ? 

To tell us a fact about Washington. 
Why are the words in Virginia used ? 
To tell US (what?) 
Why are the words in 1732 used ? 
To teU US (what ?) 
Has every word a use and meaning of its own? 
It has. 

Why do we use words ? 
To express thoughts. 

How may we express any thought that occurs to us? 
By combining words. 

Questions similar to the above may be put on the following sentences: 
Learning is a chaste ornament in prosperity, a safe refuge in 
adversity. 



10 THE USE OF WORDS. 

Rome, once the metropolis of the world, but now only a shadow 
of its former self, was founded by Romulus and Remus, twin broth 
ers, 752 years before the Christian era. 

There is a world above. 

Where parting is unknown ; 
A long eternity of love, 
formed for the good alone. 



LESSON" III. 

THE USE OP WORDS (CONTINUED). 

Let us now endeavor to employ words to express our thoughts. If I 
say Flowers grow, or Flowers are growing, I have a complete thought, al- 
though I have used only two or three words. We may extend this thought 
in xarious ways. I will ask. several questions and answer them. Ask 
yourself the same questions, and write down at least three different an- 
swers to each. 

What flowers grow? 

White flowers are growing. 

What kind of flowers grow ? 
Large flowers are growing. 

How many flowers grow ? 

Two flowers are growing. 
Where do the flowers grow ? 

Flowers on my rose-bush are growing. 

When do the flowers grow? 

Flowers are growing every moment. 

How do the flowers grow ? 

Flowers are growing rapidly. 

Why do the flowers grow? 

Flowers are growing on account of gentle showers. 

We may now combine these in one expression; as. 

Two large white flowers on my rose-bush are groW' 
ing rapidly every moment on account of gentle showers. 



DIVISION OP THE SUBJECT. 11 

In the following examples, select the simple thought, and tell what 
questions are answered by the other words. 

Many strong sailors in my brother's boat are now rowing vigors 
ousiy down the stream to reach their ship. 

A flock of beautiful blackbirds, being scared by a small boy early 
this morning, flew, with many outcries into the forest. 

A rude boy, being found by an old man in his apple-tree, was 
gently desired by him to come down. 

Extend the following simple thoughts by asking the questions what? 
what kind? how many? how? when? where? why? whose? 
Horses ran. Ships are sailing. 

Dogs bark. Scholars study. 

Boys play. Soldiers are marching. 



LESSOIT IV. 

DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT. 

Can brutes talk to each other? 

Can men talk to each other? 

What great advantage, then, do men possess over brutes ? 

They can make known their thoughts to each other. 

What do they use for the purpose of making their thoughts known? 

Language. 

Of what does language consist? 

Of words, each of which represents some idea. Thus 
the word horse represents the animal so called. 

What do we call such a collection of words as expresses a complete 
thought? 

A Sentence. 

Give some short sentences as examples. 

Time flies. — Are you industrious? — Always do 
right. — How pleasant it is to learn ! 

Make up four short sentences of your own as examples. 



12 DIVISION OF THE SUBJECT. 

How are sentences constructed? 

According to certain rules and principles, which con- 
stitute the science of Gkammae. 

How may a person learn to write and speak correctly ? 

By mastering the rules and principles of Grammar. 

In studying Grammar, with what do we have to deal ? 

In studying Grammar, we have ta deal, — 

1. With Sentences, which express complete thoughts. 

2. With Words, which represent the separate ideas 
that make up the complete thoughts. 

3. With Letters, or characters that represent the 
sounds of words. 

What is the meaning of the word Analysis f 

Some bodies are made up of several different things ; 
water, for instance, is composed of two gases, oxygen and 
hydrogen. Analysis implies the separation of such a 
compound substance into the parts that compose it. A 
chemist would analyze water by resolving it into oxygen 
and hydrogen. 

When, then, we separate a sentence into the parts that compose it, 
what is the process called 'i 
Analysis. 

What are parts into which we analyze a sentence called ? 
Elements. 

When we put together words to form sentences and express our 
thoughts, what is the process called ? 
Composition. 

Of what is Composition the opposite? 
Composition is the opposite of Analysis. 

On what are the principles of Composition based? 
On the principles of Grammar. 

In studying Grammar, with what are we to commence? 

With Sentences. 



PART I. 

SENTENCES. 



LESSON V. 

DECLAEATIVE SENTENCES. — INTEKEOGATIVE SENTENCES. 
"What is a Sentence ? 

A Sentence is such a collection of words as expresses 
a complete thought. 

Show the origin of the different classes of sentences; 
In expressing a thought, we may either, ^ 

1. Declare something. 

2. Ask something. 

8. Command, entreat, or permit something. 

4. Exclaim something. 

This gives rise to four different classes of sentences. 

What are the four kinds of sentences called? 

Declarative Sentences, Interrogative Sentences, Im- 
perative Sentences, and Exclamatory Sentences. 

What is a Declarative Sentence ? 

A Declarative Sentence is one in which something 
is declared ; as, " The sun shines." " You may be a 
good scholar." 

Make a declarative sentence containing the word fire. 

What mark stands at the end of the two sentences given above, and 
all other declarative sentences ? 

A little dot ( . ) called a Period. 

What is an Interrogative Sentence ? 

An Interrogative Sentence is one in which a ques- 

13 



14 DECLARATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 

tion is asked ; as, " Does the sun shine ? " " Are you a 
good scholar ? " 

Ask a question about snow. What kind of a sentence have you made? 

Life is short. What kind of a sentence is this ? Turn it into an inter- 
rogative sentence. 

Is life short f 

What mark stands at the end of the sentence last given, and all other 
interrogative sentences ? 

An Interrogation Point ( ? ). 

When you turn a declarative into an interrogative sentence, in writing, 
what mark must be changed ? 

The period ( . ) at the end of the declarative sentence 

must be changed into an interrogation point ( ? ). 

In such sentences as these, " He ashed how the world could he round, " 
" They inquired whether you were well,'" is a question asked ? 

No direct question is asked ; we simply declare that 
a question was asked. 

What kind of sentences, then, are the above ? 
Declarative sentences. 

Read each of the following sentences, and tell whether it is declarative 
or interrogative : — 

Who knocked ? — Did anybody knock ? — I asked whether any- 
body knocked. — Somebody knocked. — Where is he who can say, 
" Perfect happiness is mine " ? — What is truth ? — Pilate asked what 
truth was. — " What is truth 1 " asked Pilate. — United, we stand. — 
If Columbus had listened to his men, he would have abandoned hla 
voyage, and America might not yet have been discovered. 

Lives there a man with soul so dead, 

Who never to himself has said, 

" This is my own, my native land " ? 

EXERCISE 

I. Make each of the following declarative sentences 
interrogative. 

1. Love conquers all things. 

2. Charity covers a multitude of sins. 



IMPERATIYE SENTEKCES. 15 

3. Cairo is the largest city in Africa. 

4. There is no man that sinneth not. 

5. Napoleon might have lived happily and reigned gloriously. 

6. When Victoria dies, her eldest son will ascend the throne. 

n. Make each of the following interrogative sen- 
tences declarative. 

1. Is the Atlantic Telegraph cable 1,640 miles long ? 

2. Are there parts of the earth where it never rains ? 

3. Have you learned that the Volga i-s the longest river in Europe ? 

4. Was Newton the greatest philosopher of his age ? 

5. Might he have learned this, had he been more attentive? 

6. Must all men die ? 

in. Make six declarative sentences, each of which 
shall contain one of the following words : — 
Model. — Honey. Bees make honey. 

steamboats are love 

happy brothers grass 

lY. Make six interrogative sentences, each of which 
shall contain one of the following words : — 
Model. — Thunder. Did you hear it thunder ? 

did were sweet 

where who clouds 



LESSON VI. 

IMPEEATIVE SENTENCES. — EXCLAMATOET SENTENCES. 

What is an Imperative Sentence ? 

An Imperative Sentence is one that is used in com- 
manding, entreating, or permitting; as, "Let the sua 
shine." " Do not hurt me." "Go in peace." 

V/hen you say, " Let the sun shine," do you command, entreat, or 
permit ? 

When you say, " Do not hurt me," do you command, entreat, or per- 
mit? 

When you say, " Go in peace," do you command, fentreat, or permit? 



16 EXCLAMATORY SENTENCES. 

What mark stands at the end of each of the three sentences given 
above, and all other imperative sentences ? 

Suppose you had a brother Robert, and wanted to tell him to study his 
lesson, what would you say ? What kind of a senteace would that be ? 

Make an imperative sentence containing the word go. 

What kind of a sentence is this 'i— It rains. Turn it into an interrog- 
ative sentence. Turn it into an imperative sentence. 

JLet it rain. 

What is an Exclamatory Sentence ? 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one used in exclaiming ; 
as, " How it rains ! " " What a studious boy ! " 

What two words often stand at the commencement of exclamatory sen- 
tences, as in the two examples given above ? 

How and what. 

Make an exclamatory sentence beginning with Eow. Make an exclam- 
atory sentence beginning with What. 

What kind of a sentence is this? — Pope wrote fine poetry. Turn it 
into an exclamatory sentence. 

What fine poetry Pope wrote! 

What mark stands at the end of the last sentence, and all other ex- 
clamatory sentences V 

An Exclamation Point ( ! ). 

When you turn a declarative sentence into an exclamatory sentence 
in writing, what mark must be changed ? 

The period ( . ) at the end of the declarative sentence 
must be changed into an exclamation point (! ). 

Read each of the following sentences, and tell whether it is declarative, 
inten-ogative, imperative, or exclamatory : — 

Nero, the Roman emperor, was a monster of wickedness. — "Was 
Nero, the Roman emperor, a monster of wickedness ? — What a mon- 
ster of wickedness Nero was ! — Let Nero, that monster of wickedness, 
be abhorred by all good men. — O reputation, dearer far than life ! — 
Where was George Washington born ? In Westmoreland County, 
Virginia. — Be just and fear not. — Know thyself. — There is no 
city in America as far north as Paris. — " How fortunate it is that 
ice is lighter than water ! " " Why so % " " Because, were it not so, 
the streams would be frozen in winter from bottom to top, and all the 
fish would be killed." 



EXEECISB ON SENTENCES. If 

LESSON VII. 

EXEECISE ON SENTENCES. 

I. Make each of the following declarative sentences 
imperative : — 

Model. — Declarative. "We must not think too highly of ourselves. 
You must depart. 
Imperative. Let us not think too highly of ourselves. 
Depart. 

1. No one loves bad men. 

2. Vou ought to be diligent, like the little ant. 

3. You are not hard-hearted. 

4. No man should despair, however unfortunate he may be. 

5. They prize virtue more than gold. 

6. You will not keep bad company. 

II. Make each of the following declarative sentences 

exclamatory : — 

Model. — Declarative. It rains hard. Education is a treasure. 

Exclamatory. How hard it rains ! What a treasure 
education is ! 

1. The birds fly prettily. 

2. Dr. Kane boldly explored the Arctic regions. . 
3 The peacock has ugly feet. 

4- Very little is known about the interior of Africa. 

5. It is exceedingly warm in the torrid zone. 

6. Chicago has a fine situation on Lake Michigan. 

III. Make six imperative sentences, each of which 
shall contain one of the following words : — 

Model. — Give. Give alms to the poor. 

walk studies always 

look cheerftd rise 

IV. Make six exclamatory sentences, each of which 
shall contain one of the following words : — 

Model. — Kind. How kind my teacher is 1 

graced books character 

sweetly writes 



18 THE SUBJECT. 

LESSON VIII. 

THE SUBJECT. 

What kind of a sentence is this? — Cinnamon is producedin Ceylon, 
What is my object in writing this sentence ? 

To tell something about cinnamon. 

What, then, is the leading word in the sentence, about which I say 
something? 

The word cinnamon. 

What is the leading word, about which something is said, in each ol 
the following sentences ? 

Gunpowder is said to have been invented by the Chinese. 

We never lose anything by industry. 

Is not the Amazon the largest river in the world? 

Shall we cross the ocean ? 

What do we call this leading word, about which something is said? 

It is called the /Subject of the sentence. 

Can there be any sentence without a subject? 

Make a declarative sentence with gold for its subject. 

Gold is found in California. 

Make another sentence like the above, with gold for its subject. 
Make an interrogative sentence with lion for its subject. 
Is not the lion the king of beasts ? 

Make another interrogative sentence with Uon for its subject. 
Make an imperative sentence with thou for its subject. 
Be thou happy. 

Make another imperative sentence with thou for its subject 
Make an exclamatory sentence with men for its subject. 
How unwise some men are ! 

Make another exclamatory sentence with men for its subject. 
When a sentence is given, how can you find the subject? 
By asking a question with who or what. The word 
that answers the question will be the subject. 

Give an example. 

Cinnamon is produced in Ceylon. To find the sub- 



THE SUBJECT. 19 

Ject of tliis sentence, ask the question, "What is prO' 
duced in Ceylon f Answer, cinnamon. Then cinnor' 
man is the subject. 

Give another example. 

Lions are found in Asia and Africa. 

Question. — What are found in Asia and Afiica? 

Answer. — Lions; lions is the subject. 

Give an example with an interrogative sentence. * 

Were Caesar and Alexander great generals ? 

Question. — Were who great generals ? 

Answer. — CcBsar dindi Alexander ; Ccesar and AUxf- 
ander are the subject. 

May a sentence, then, have more than one word for its subject? 

Yes, it may have a number of words. 

Give a sentence which has several words for its subject. 

Cats and dogs are foes to mice. 

What words are the subject of the sentence last given? Make a 
sentence of your own, like the one just given, which will have more thaa 
one word for its subject. 

EXEKCISE. 

I. Select the subject in each of the following sen- 
tences. If you are at a loss, ask the question with who 
or what^ as you have been shown above. 

I. The rose-geranium is a native of Arabia. 2. Are not the 
Himalaya Mountains the highest range in the world 1 3. Eew 
know the value of a fiiend. 4. Grammar teaches us how to speak 
and write correctly. 5. How happy we are when we do right! 
6. Let the sinner turn from his wickedness and live. 7. He and 
she and I go to school. 8. Hills and valleys, fields and farm-houses, 
meet the eye. 

II. Make six sentences which shall have the follow- 
ing words for their subjects in order : — 

1. sun 4. father and mother 

2. anger 5. day and night 

3. gardens 6. apples, plums, and peaches 



20 LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 



LESSON IX. 

THE LOGICAI. SUBJECT. — THE GRAMMATICAJL SUBJECT. 

What is the difference between these two sentences ? — 
Solomon built a temple. 
The wise Solomon built a temple. 

The first sentence has Solomon for its subject; the 
second, the wise Solomon. 

In the second sentence, why is Solomon modified by the words Iho 
wise ? 

To tell what kmd of a man Solomon was. 

In the expression, the wise Solomon, what is the leading word? 

Solomon. 

What are the other words, the wise, called ? 
Modifying words. 
What are modifying words ? 

Modifying words are words joined to some leading 
word, to describe or limit it. 

Join some modifying words to the word day, to describe it. 

A cold day. — The words a cold tells us what kmd 
of a day is meant. 

Join some modifying words to the word day, to limit it. 

The fifteenth day. Day before yesterday. Here 
the modifying words are joined to day to limit it, that 
is, to tell us what particular day is meant. 

What do we call the leading word in a sentence, about which some- 
thing is said, together with the words that modify it ? 

The Logical Subject. 

What is the logical subject in the sentence, The wise Solomon built a 
temple ? 

The wise Solomon. 

What do we call the leading word, Solomon, without the modifying 
•words joined to it? 

The Grammatical Subject. 



LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL SUBJECT. 21 

Select the logical and the grammatical subject in the follo'wing sen- 
tence: Thehest printing-presses are made in America. 

The logical subject is the best printing-presses j the 
grammatical subject is printing-presses. 

Select the logical and the grammatical subject in each of the foUow- 
ing sentences : — 

The latest news from India is favorable. 
The man who does his duty will be rewarded. 
The Declaration of Independence was adopted July 4, 1776. 
Wine is made from grapes. 
In this last sentence, is there any difference between the logical and 
fche grammatical subject? 

Are there sentences, then, in which the grammatical subject may be 
the same as the logical subject ? . 

Yes. When the logical subject consists of but one 
word, without any modifying words joined to it, it will 
also be the grammatical subject. When, however, the 
logical subject contains modifying words, we must take 
them away from the leading word in order to get the 
grammatical subject. 

When the grammatical and the logical subject are not the same, which 
is the shorter of the two ? 

EXERCISE. 

I. Select the logical and the grammatical subject 
in each of the following sentences : — 

I. Mercy is twice blessed. 2. O that my enemy would write 
a book ! 3. He that would have his work well done, must do it him- 
self. 4. Let the dead bury the dead. 5. Who was th-e oldest of 
men ? 6. Were not Adam and Eve our first parents 1 7. Certain 
peace is better than hoped-for victory. 

II. Make six sentences, each of which shall have one 
of the following words for both its grammatical and its 
logical subject: — 

oxen silver money 

ice fisherman summer 

III. Make six sentences, each of which shall have one 

of the above words for its grammatical, but not for its 

logical subject. 



22 THE PREDICATE. 



LESSON" X. 

THE PREDICATE. 

The wise Solomon built a temple. What is the logical subject of thii 
sentence ? 

What do we call that part of the sentence that remains when the 
logical subject is taken away? 

The Pred'-i-cate. 

What is the predicate in the sentence given above ? 

JBuilt a temple. 

Now let us define these words. — What is the subject of a sentence? 

The subject of a sentence is that about which some- 
thing is said or written. 

What is the predicate ? 

The predicate is that which is said or written about 
the subject. 

Select the subject and the predicate in this sentence: The bible of the 
Mohavimedans is called the Koran. 

The subject is the bible of the Mohammedans. 
The predicate is is called the Koran. 

Select the subject and the predicate in this sentence : In the battle of 
Bunker Hill the noble Warren fell. 

The subject is the noble Warren. 

The predicate i^fell in the battle of Bunker HiU. 

Select the subject and the predicate in the following sentences: — 
Wivhin a few years, several fine carriage-roads have been constructed 

across the Alps. 
Among Spanish authors, Cervantes, the author of Don Quixote, holds 

the highest rank. 
Where can we find a greater mind than Sir Isaac Newton's? 
Into how many elements may every sentence be divided? 

Into two, Subject and Predicate. 

What is the process of dividing a sentence into these elements called? 

Analysis. 

Analyze the sentence, Arabian horses will travel nearly a hundred miles 
without stopping. 



EXERCISE ON SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 23 

This is a declarative sentence. Arabian horses is 
the logical subject; horses is the grammatical subject; 
will travel nearly a hundred miles without stopping is 
the predicate. 

Analyze this sentence : — My friend^ have you heard the news ? 

This is an interrogative sentence. You, my friend^ 
is the logical subject; you is the grammatical subject; 
have heard the news is the predicate. 

EXERCISE. 
■ Analyze each of the following sentences according 
to the models just giveo, mentioning, — 1. What Mnd of 
a sentence it is. 2. The logical subject. 3. The gram- 
matical subject. 4. The predicate. 

1. The red coral of which trinkets are made is found in the Med- 
iterranean Sea, Its cells are the abode of a little insect, by which it is 
formed. Who would suppose that creatures so small could make such 
extensive beds of this beautiful substance ? 

2 At the North Cape, in Norway, the sun does not go down for 
several weeks. How strange it must seem, to go to bed by daylight ! 
Would you like to travel there ? 

3. An ungrateful man is like a hog eating nuts under a tree, with- 
out ever looking up to see whence they come. 



LESSON^ XI. 

EXERCISE OlSr SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE. 

There can be no sentence without a subject and a 
predicate. 

I. Below are six subjects. Make with them six sen- 
tences by supplying a predicate to each. 

1. The color of the sea 4. The Eocky Mountains 

2. Whether we shall go 5. Columbus 

3. Ground that is barren 6. Working in the sun 



24 SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

II. Below are six predicates. Make with them six 
sentences by supplying a subject to each. 

1. come from South America 4. make good men 

2. are shot on the prairies 5. is disgraceful 

3. was bom in Virginia 6. would be wrong 



LESSON XII. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. — COMPLEX SENTENCES. — COMPOUND 
SENTENCES. 

How many distinct parts are there in the following sentence? — Pov- 
ertti afflicts us ; vice disgraces us. 

Two parts : — 1. Poverty afflicts us. 
2. Vice disgraces us. 

What is each of these parts called ? 

A Member. 

Does each of these members express an independent thought? What 
is the subject of the first member ? What is its predicate ? What is the 
subject of the second member? What is its predicate? Are their subjects 
and predicates the same or diflFerent ? 

What is a member of a sentence ? 

A Member .of a sentence is such a part as expresses 
an independent thought and has a distinct subject and 
predicate of its own. 

How many members are there in the following sentence, and what are 
they ? — Cork is light ; air is lighter ; hydrogen is lightest. 
Pick out the subject and the predicate of each member. 
What do we call a sentence like the above ? 
A Compound Sentence. 
What is a Compound Sentence ? 

A Compound Sentence is one that contains two or 
more members. 

What do we call a sentence that contains only one assertion ? 

A Simple Sentence. 



SIMPLE, COMPLEX, AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. 25 

Is the following sentence simple or compound, and why ? — The harvest 
is past. 

Is the following sentence simple or compound, and why? — The harvest 
is past, the summer is ended. 

Make a simple sentence of your own. Make a compound sentence. 

What do we call a sentence that contains a leading assertion modified 
by one or more dependent assertions ? 

A Complex Sentence. 

What are the dependent assertions of a complex sentence called? 

Clauses. 

What kind of a sentence is this, and why ? — Solomon was the son oj 
David. 

What kind of a sentence is this, and why ? — Solomon, who built the 
temple, was the son of David. 

What kind of a sentence is this, and why? — Solomon, who built the 
temple, was the son of David, but he neglected the worship of his God. 

Make a simple sentence of your own. Make a' complex sentence. 
Make a compound sentence. 

Is the following sentence simple, complex, or compound, and why? — 
Rome, which had conquered the world, fell before the northern barbarians. 

Complex: because it contains the leading assertion 
Home fell before the northern harharians., and the de- 
pendent assertion which had conquered the world. 

Analyze it. 

It is a complex declarative sentence. Rome., which 
had conquered the loorld., is the logical subject. Itom,e 
is the grammatical subject. Fell before the northern 
barbarians is the predicate. 

Is the following sentence simple or compound ? — The best life-boats and 
agricultural implements are made in America. 

It is a simple declarative sentence. The best life- 
boats and agricidtural implcTnents is the logical subject. 
lAfe-boats and implements are the grammatical subject. 
Are made in America is the predicate. 

EXERCISE. 
Make eight simple, eight complex, and eight com- 



26 Different kinj)s of compound sentences. 

pound sentences, each of which shall contain one of the 

following words : — 

ships swift run beauty while 

business and handsome rapidly if 

but give have and who 

blow eyes stoves Europe that 



LESSON XIII. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF COMPOUND AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 

When a declarative sentence contains two or more members, what is 
it called ? 

A Compound Declarative Sentence. 

When an interrogative sentence contains two or more members, what 
is it called ? 

A Compound Interrogative Sentence. 

When an imperative sentence contains two or more members, what is 
it called? 

A Compound Imperative Sentence. 

When an exclamatory sentence contains two or more members, what is 
it called ? 

A Compound Exclamatory Sentence. 

Give an example of a compound declarative sentence. 

Genius accomplishes much, but industry does more. 

Why is this a declarative sentence? Why is it compound? What 
two members does it contain? What are the subject and predicate of 
each? 

Give an example of a compound interrogative sentence. 

Has he said it, and shall he not do it ? 

Why is this an interrogative sentence? Why is it compound? What 
two members does it contain? What are the subject and predicate of each? 
Give an example of a compound imperative sentence. 

Let Flora be your jeweller; let rose-buds be your 
rubies. 

Why is this an imperative sentence ? Why is it compound ? What 



COMPOUND MIXED AND COMPLEX SENTENCES. 27 

two members does it contain? What are the subject and predicate «»f 
each? 

Give an example of a compound exclamatory sentence. 

How noble was Washington, how exalted was his 
character, how exemplary was his career ! 

Why is this an exclamatory sentence ? Why is it compound ? What 
three members does it contain? What are the subject and predicate of 
each ? 

What kind of a sentence is this ? — Americus Vespucius gave his name 
1o the Western Continent ; but did he deserve the honor f 

It is a compound sentence. 
What word connects the two members ? 

What is the first member ? Is it declarative, interrogative, imperative, 
or exclamatory ? 

What is the second member? Is it declarative, interrogative, impera- 
tive, or exclamatory ? 

When a compound sentence has members of different kinds, like the 
one just given, what is it called ? 

A Compound Mixed Sentence. 

Make up a compound mixed sentence. 

On what does the class of a complex sentence depend? 

On its leading assertion. 

What kiad of a sentence is this, and why ? — Since you request it, I will 
assist you. 

A Complex Declarative Sentence; because the lead- 
ing assertion, Jioill assist you, is declarative. 

What kind of a sentence is this, and why ? — Shall I instruct a class 
that will not hear f 

A Complex Interrogative Sentence ; because the 
leading assertion, jShall I instruct a class P is interrog- 
ative. 

What kind of a sentence is this, and why ? — Let him go, if he dare ! 

A Complex Imperative Sentence; because the lead- 
ing assertion, Let hrni go^ is imperative. 



28 COPULA, ATTRIBUTE, ETC. 

What kind of a sentence is this, and why? — Haw faithless was the man 
in whom I trusted ! 

A Complex Exclamatory Sentence; because the 
leading assertion, Sow faithless was the man^ is exclam- 
atory. 

Tell what kind of sentence is each of the following; that is, whether 
it is simple declarative, complex declarative, compound declarative, simple 
interrogative, &c. 

Must you g-o, and must I remain ? 

How pleasant it is in summer, but it is not always healthy. 

Let me go to school, and I will try to learn. 

Forgive me, will you not ? 

War and Love are strange compeers. 

War sheds blood, and Love sheds tears ; 

War has swords, and Love has darts ; 

War breaks heads, and Love breaks hearts. 

I saw hira, when I came home. 

No one knew that he was a traitor. 



LESSON XIV. 

PULA. — ATTEIBUTE. — LOGICAL PREDICATE. — GBAMMAT- 
ICAL PREDICATE. 

What kind of a sentence is this ? — Horses are strong. 

What is the subject ? What is the predicate ? 

If we leave out are, and say Horses strong^ do we assert anything? 

No. 

What word, then, in this sentence, asserts? 
Are. 

What do we call are f 

The Copula. 

What does strong express ? 

It expresses a quality that belongs to horses. 

What do we call strong ? 

The Attribute. 



LOGICAL AND GRAMMATICAL PREDICATE. 29 

What is an attribute ? 

It is any word that expresses the quality, state, or 
condition of the subject. 

Taken together, what do the copula and the attribute make up ? 

Are is the copula; strong is the attribute; taken 
together, they make up the predicate. 

Mention some words that are used as the copula in sentences. 

Am, is, are, was, were, has been, have been, shall 
be, may be, &c. 

In the sentence Eorses are very strong, what is the subject? What is 
the copula? What is the attribute ? What is the predicate? 

Does t;he predicate contain any other words than the copula and the 
attribute ? 

It contains, besides them, the modifying word very. 

What is the whole predicate, including the modifying word or words, 
called? 

The Logical Predicate, or the Modified Predicate. 

What are the copula and attribute taken together, without any modi- 
fying words, called? 

The Grammatical Predicate. In the sentence Horses 
are very strong^ the grammatical predicate is are strong. 

Is the grammatical predicate ever the same as the logical predicate ? 

It is, when the logical predicate does not contain 
any modifying words. 

Give an example. 

Scholars should he diligent. Should he diligent is 
the logical predicate, and, since it is not modified by any 
words, it is also the grammatical predicate. 

Does every predicate have separate words for the copula and the at- 
tribute ? 

No ; in some predicates they are united in the same 
word. Thus, time flies ; flies is both copula and attri- 
bute. 

Prove that it is both copula and attribute. 

Time flies is the same thing as time is flying. In 



36 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 



the latter sentence, is is the copula, ^ytn^ is the attn- 
bute ; therefore Jlies, which is equivalent to is flying^ 
is both copula and attribute combined. 

In each of the following sentences, name the copula; name the attri- 
bute; if they are combined in one word, state in what word they are com- 
bined. 

Vice is degrading. Virtue is ennobling. Ships sail. Ships are 
sailing. James writes. James is writing. Boys play. Boys aro 
playing. Stars twinkle. Stars are twinkling. 



RECAPITULATION. 



Sentences. 



Forms. 



Uses. 



" Simple. 

Complex. 

Compound. 
' Declarative, 

Interrogative, 

Exclamatory, 
^ Imperative, 



or Mixed. 



LESSON XV. 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 



In analyzing a sentence, — 

1. Mention whether it is simple declarative, com- 
plex declarative, compound declarative; simple, com- 
plex, or compound interrogative ; simple, complex, or 
compound imperative ; simple, complex, or compound 
exclamatory ; or compound mixed. 

2. If the sentence is simple, mention its grammati- 
cal subject, logical subject, grammatical predicate, 
copula and attribute, logical predicate. 

3. If the sentence is complex, mention its leading 



MODELS OF ANALYSIS. 31 

assertion, name each of the clauses and state the office 
of each; mention the grammatical and logical subject, 
the grammatical predicate, copula, and attribute, and 
the logical predicate of the leading assertion, and of 
each clause. 

4. If the sentence is compound, select each member : 
say whether it is declarative, interrogative, imperative, 
or exclamatory; mention the grammatical and logical 
subject, the grammatical predicate, copula and attribute, 
and the logical predicate of the first member. Do the 
same with each remaining member in turn. 
Learn the following models of analysis. 

Model I. — Simple Sentence, How many evils war 
brings on a country ! 

This is a simple exclamatory sentence. 

The grammatical subject is war. The logical subject is war, the same 
as the grammatical subject, because there are no modifying words. 

The grammatical predicate is brings ; copula and attribute are com- 
bined in the word brings. The logical predicate is brings how many evils on 
a country. 

Model II. — Complex Sentence. Alonzo, who was a 
youth of great promise, found an early grave. 

This is a complex declarative sentence ; the leading assertion is Alxmzo 
found an early grave ; the clause is wlio was a youth of great promise, and it 
introduces an additional fact respecting Alonzo. 

The grammatical subject of the leading assertion is Alonzo; the logical 
subject is Alonzo, who loas a youth of great promise. 

The grammatical predicate is found, which includes copula and attri- 
bute ; the logical predicate is found an early grave. 

The grammatical subject of the clause is who, jvhich, being unmodifled, 
is also the logical subject. 

The grammatical predicate is was youth, consisting of the copula 
was and the attribute youth ; the logical predicate is was a youth of great 
promise. 

Model III. — Compound Sentence. Napoleon es- 



32 EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 

caped from Elba ; but how little did he foresee the con- 
sequences of that act ! 

This is a compound mixed sentence : the first member is Napoleon 
escaped from Elba^ which is declarative; the second member is how little 
did he foresee the consequences of that act, which is exclamatory. 

The two members are connected by hut. 

The grammatical and logical subject of the first member is Napoleon. 

The grammatical predicate is escaped, which includes copula and at- 
tribute ; the logical predicate is escaped from Elba. 

The grammatical and logical subject of the second member is he. 

The grammatical predicate is did foresee, which includes copula and 
attribute ; the logical predicate is how little did he foresee the consequences 
of thai act. 



LESSON XVI. 

EXERCISE IN- ANALYSIS. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
models given above : — 

1 . The largest library in the world is at Paris ; it contains over 
800,000 volumes. 

2. How balmy is the air, and how sweetly the birds sing in the 
groves ! 

3. The kangaroo and the black swan are found only in Australia 
and Van Diemen's Land. 

4. I know that the stars are shining in the sky. 

5. In what manner does the diamond act upon glass, so as to 
cut it ? 

6. If the lama is struck by his master, he lies down and looks up 
towards heaven ; large ffears flow from his beautiful eyes, and in less 
than an hour he expires. 

7. Let the slotliful beware, and let the wicked tremble. 

8. The poet Burns was habitually a hard drinker ; what a pity it 
was that he gave way to this vice ! 

9. A good scholar excels his master. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 33 

lesso:n^ xvii. 

DiRECTioJf TO Teachers. — Young students should now write 
at least one composition a week after the models given in Part V. This 
exercise will enable them to apply the principles of grammar as fast as 
they have learned them, and will, at the same time, lead them to make 
intelligent selection of their thoughts. 

Advanced pupils may now take up the study of Chapter X. before 
entering Part 11. 

REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

[The numbers prefixed to the paragraphs refer to the Lessons from 
which the answers may be obtained.] 

IV., V. What is a sentence? How many kinds of sentences are there? 
Name them. What is a declarative sentence ? What is an interrogative 
sentence? What is an imperative sentence? What is an exclamatory sen- 
tence ? Give an example of each. 

Vn., VIII. What is the subject of a sentence? What is the logical 
subject? What is the grammatical subject? In what sentences is the 
grammatical subject the same as the logical subject? 

IX. What is the predicate of a sentence ? What is analysis ? 

XI. What is a member of a sentence ? What is a simple sentence ? 
What is a complex sentence ? What is a compound sentence ? 

XII. What is a compound declarative sentence? What is a com- 
pound interrogative sentence? What is a compound imperative sentence? 
What is a compound exclamatory sentence? What is a compound mixed 
sentence? Give an example of a compound mixed sentence. On what 
does the class of a complex sentence depend? What is a clause? What 
is a complex declarative sentence? What is a complex interrogative 
sentence ? What is a eoraplex imperative sentence ? What is a complex 
exclamatory sentence ? 

XIII. What do we call that word in the predicate which simply asserts 
being, such as am, is, are, was, were, &c. ? What do we call that word in 
the predicate which stands after the copula and gene.^ally expresses quality? 
What is an attribute? What is the logical predicate of a sentence? What 
is the gi-ammatical predicate? When are the logical predicate and the 
grammatical predicate the same ? 

XIV. Give the directions for analyzing sentences. 

According to Model I., analyze the sentence, " How many evils war 
brings on a country ! " 

According to Model II., analyze the sentence, " Alonzo, who was a 
youth of great promise, found an early grave." 

According to Model III., analyze the sentence, " Napoleon escaped 
from Elba ; but how little did he for-esee the consequences of that act ! " 



PAET II. 
WORDS. 

English Grammar teaches the principles and usages 
of the English language. These relate, — 

1. To letters and the manner of combining them in words; 

2. To the classification and derivation of words ; 

3. To the arrangement of words in sentences; 

4. To the arrangement of words in verse. 

The first is called Orthography ; the second, Etymol- 
ogy ; the third, Syntax ; and the fourth. Prosody. 



CHAPTER I. 

CLASSIFICATION OF WOEDS. 

SECTION I. 

Words distinguished as Pkimitite, Deitativk, and Compound- 
Declinable AND Indeclinable. 

1. A Word is what is spoken or wiitten as the sign of 
an idea, or a sign to denote the relation between ideas. 

Thus in the sentence Horses are strong, the words horses and strong are 
used to represent ideas, and the copula shows the relation between them. 
Notice how the relation is changed when the copula is changed to have been 
or will be. 

2. Etymology is that department of grammar which 
treats of the derivation, classification, and accidents of 
words. 

3. Words have been formed in different ways. To 
distinguish them according to their formation, we divide 
them into three classes : — 

34 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 35 

L Primitive "Words, or such as are not formed from 
any simpler words in the language ; as, sun, 
flower^ garden. 

n. Derivative Words, or such as are formed from 
simpler ones, by the addition of one or more 
letters not separately used as words ; as, sunny 
(from smi)^ flowery (from flower)^ gardener 
(fi'om garden). 

m. Compound Words, or such as are formed by 
putting together two or more primitives or 
derivatives ; as, sun-flower^ flower-garden, fire- 
man, laughter-l 



When you are in doubt whether a word is a derivative or a compound, 
try whether each of the parts )f which it is made up, when used by itself, 
has meaning. K so, it is a compound word ; if not, a derivative. — Manly 
is composed of man and ly : ly, by itself, means nothing ; therefore, manly 
is a derivative. — Man-servant is composed of man and servant : each part, 
used separately, means something ; therefore man-servant is a compound. 

4. Some words may be changed in form; as, boy, 
boys; walk, walks. Such words are said to be Declin- 
able. 

Some words do not admit of any change of form; 
as, quickly, alas. Such words are said to be Indeclin- 
able. 

EXERCISE. 

Tell whether the following words are primitive, de- 
rivative, or compound. When you come to a deriva- 
tive word, tell from what primitive it is formed. When 
you come to a compound, tell what words unite to form it. 

Fire, thirsty, ever, nightly, nevertheless, boatman, books, book- 
store, frequent, frequently, house, houses, ice-house, act, action, trans- 
act, transacted, write, writing, writing-book, hangman, storehouse, 
laughter, sugar-loaf, di'omedary. 



36 CLASSIFICATION OP WORDS. 

SECTION II. 
Words distinguished accobdinq to their Uses. 

5. There are nearly 100,000 words in the English 
language. 

5. Each word has its own part to perform in a sen- 
tence, and is placed there for a certain use, as you found 
in the first two lessons of this book. 

I. Some words are used as the names of objects ; as, 
bird^ horse^ apple. 

These words are called Nouns. Any word that denotes an object that 
we can speak of or think of is a noun. Any noun may be the subject of a 
sentence. 

Pick out the words that are used as the names of objects in the follow- 
ing expressions : — ripe cherries — in London — man is mortal — reading 
and writing are taught in school. 

Mention all the nouns in the seventh exercise on Composition in this 
book. 

Name five other nouns that are the names of things. 

Name five other nouns that are the names of animals. 

II. Some words are used instead of the names of 
objects. 

/, tliou, he, she, it, we, you, they, who, which, &c., are used instead of the 
names of objects. 

These words are called Pronouns. They are not very numerous; 
but they are very useful, because they can take the place of any noun. 

Washington was the father of his country. We mean Washington was 
the father of Washington'' s country; but we use his instead of the name 
Washington's. 

Language would seem very strange to us if there were no pronouns. 
To express the thought, Mary has studied her lesson, but she does not under- 
stand it, we should be obliged to say, 3fary has studied Mary's lesson, but 
Mary does not understand the lesson. 

Mentioff all the pronouns in the seventh exercise, on Composition. 

III. Some words are used to express the quality of 
objects, or to limit their meaning. — A good horse; good 
expresses the quality of the horse, or tells what kind of 
horse is meant. — /Seven dags ; seven limits the number 
of days. 



CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 37 

These words are called Adjectives. They are generally used with 
nouns, and are said to belong to them. 

Pick out the words that qualify, or limit, in the following expressions : 

— graceful women — three weeks — the ocean — a beautiful sight — in this 
room — steamboats are useful. 

Mention all the adjectives in the seventh exercise on Composition, and 
state whether they qualify or limit. 

In the same exercise, write down all the qualities of the piece of glass. 
Which of the words that you have used are adjectives ? 

IV. Some words are used to assert. — JLamhs play ; 
play asserts that an act is performed by lambs. — Man 
is happy / is asserts "a state respecting man. 

These words are called Verbs. No assertion can bo made without 
them, and hence they are very important. Most verbs are capable of form- 
ing by themselves the predicate of a sentence; as. Time Jlies. The copu- 
las am, is, are, &c. mentioned in Lesson XIV. are also verbs. When the 
attribute expresses quality, it is always an adjective; as. The apples are 
sour. When it expresses condition, it is a noun; as, Franklin was a phi- 
losopher. 

Pick out the words that assert in the following sentences: — Time 
flies. Pompey was defeated. We shall see. I may be wrong. Look be- 
fore you leap. 

In the seventh exercise on Composition, mention all the verbs that 
form complete predicates. Mention all the copulas. Mention all the attri- 
butes that are adjectives. Mention all the attributes that are nouns. 

Y. Some words are nsed to tell when, where, or 
how an action is performed, or the degree of a quality. 

— Yesterday he went there very willingly ; yesterday 
tells when he went, there tells where he went, willingly 
tells how he went, very tells the degree of his readi- 
ness. 

These words are called Adverbs. They are used to modify the 
meaning of verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. 

Pick out the words that tell when, where, and how an action is per- 
formed in the following sentence : — Come here ; listen attentively to-day, 
and you will understand perfectly to-morrow. It is exceedingly sour. 

Mention five more words of this kind. 

Mention all the adverbs in the seventh exercise on Composition, and 
state whether they modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. 



38 CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

VI. Some words are used to express relations of 
various kinds; as, at^ in, hy, with, for, from, of, out, 
down, to, up, &c. 

These words are called Prepositions. They are so called because 
they are placed be/ore nouns. When taken with the nouns with which they 
are associated, they constitute adjuncts ; as, in England. Adjuncts often 
take the place of adjectives and adverbs to denote the relations of place, 
time, manner, possessor, &c. 

In exercise seventh on Composition, mention all the prepositions. 
Mention all the adjuncts. Mention five other prepositions. 

VII. Some words are used to connect other words ; 
as, bread and cheese. 

These words are called Conjunctions. They have no other oflBce 
than to connect words and sentences. 

And, or, if, but, although, because, for, yet, unless, whether, nor, &c. are 
used as conjunctions. Some adverbs are frequently used as connectives. 
They are then termed conjunctive adverbs; as, when, while, where. 

Mention the conjunctions in exercise seventh on Composition. Men- 
tion the conjunctive adverbs. Are there any words in the exercise which 
you have not mentioned in some one of the preceding classes ? If there 
are any, to what class do the omitted words belong ? 

VIII. Some words are used to express sudden feel- 
ings, such as grief, joy, wonder, disgust, &g. 

Oh, ah. alas, hurrah, hark, pshaw, &c. are words of this class. 
These words are called Interjections. They do not bear any gram- 
matical relation to other words in a sentence. 

7. Thus we have eight different classes of words, 
distinguished from each other by their use, that is, the 
part they perform in a sentence. 

The different classes into which words are divided 
according to their use are called Parts of Speech. 

There are eight Parts of Speech : the Noun, the Pro- 
noun, the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the Preposi- 
tion, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

Some words have several different uses; hence the 
same word may be one part of speech in one sentence, 
and another in another. 



PARTS OF SPEECH. 



39 



8. The relations which words bear to each other are 
denoted either by other words, or by changes in their 
endings. 

Inflection is a change in the termination of a word. 
When carried through their different inflections, nouns 
and pronouns are said to be declined / adjectives, to be 
compared ; and verbs, to be conjugated. Some adverbs 
are compared^ but prepositions, conjunctions, and inter- 
jections are indeclinable. 

Accidents are the different properties and inflections 
of the parts of speech. 

9. Parsing is the process of telling what part of 
speech a word is; stating its grammatical properties; 
and showing its relations to other words. 

10. Analysis is the process of separating a sentence 
into its elements, and defining the office of each ele- 
ment 



EECAPITULATION. 



Etymology. 



Forms of 
Words. 



Uses of 
Words. 



Accidents of 
Words. 



Simple ; as, man. 

Deiivative ; as, m( 

Compound ; as, seaman, 

Noun ; as, bird. 

Pronoun ; as, it. 

Adjective ; as, good. 

Verb ; as, fly. 

Adverb ; as, very. 

Preposition ; as, above. 

Conjunction ; as, and. 

Interjection ; as, alas ! 

Person, Number, Gender. 

Voice, Mood, Tense. 
1 Positive, Comparative, and 
(_ Superlative Degrees, 



40 THE NOUN. 



CHAPTER II. 



THE NOUN. 

11. A Noun IS the name of an object; as, George^ 
Manchester^ tree. 

12. To determine whetlier any given word is a nonn or not, ask 
•whether it is the name of anything that can be thought of or spoken of; 
if so, it is a noun. We can think of virtue^ vice, c/oodness, time, light, darh- 
ness ; these words, therefore, are nouns. We can speak of persons, 2>^(ic^s, 
rivers, mountains, &c. ; therefore the names that designate these, such as 
Ccesar, Paris, Rhine, Andes, Sec, are nouns. 

We can think of a word, or letter, figure, used merely as a term, with- 
out reference to its usual meaning; as, me is a pronoun; a has four 
sounds ; 9 is an odd number. In these sentences, me, a, and 9, as well as 
all words, letters, and figures used in the same way, are nouns. 

A noun is sometimes termed a Substantive, from a Latin word denot- 
ing that which stands under, or that which is the substance of our thought, 
whether obtained through the senses or the understanding. Several words 
jointly performing the office of a noun are termed Subsiantive elements. 
Phrases and Clauses may be thus used. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the names of the objects in a school-room. 

Mention the names of the animals in a farm-yard. 

Mention the names of the flowers in a garden. 

Mention the names of the persons and places which you can see or 
think of. 

What part of speech is each of the names you have mentioned? 
Why? 

Place a noun before each of the following predicates, 
in place of the dash : — 

Model. — — is hard. — are sweet. 

Marble is hard. Figs are sweet. 

— is pleasant. — is kind. — are sour. — run. 

— walks. — reads. — write. — mow. 
—is high. — studies. — play. — shine. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS, 41 

SECTION I. 

Classes of Nouns. 

13. The same name may be applied to many differ- 
ent objects belonging to the same class; as, man, river, 
mountain. 

If we wish to distinguish an individual belonging to 
the class, we gi^^e it a particular name ; as, Adam, Ama- 
zon, Mont Blanc, 

The name man may be applied to every male human being, and dis- 
tinguishes men as a class from every other class of animals, from mon- 
keys, horses, &c. It does not, however, denote any individual ; that is, it 
does not tell us what man is meant. For this a particular name is neces- 
sary; as, Adam, Stephen, Washington. This gives rise to a division of 
nouns into tAvo classes. 

14. Xouns are divided into two classes, Common 
and Proper. 

A Common ItToun is the name that distinguishes one 
class of objects from another; as, iGonian, city, nation. 

A Proper Koun is the name that distinguishes one 
individual of a class from others of the same class ; as, 
Victoria, London, the Greeks. 

A Complex Noun is a Proper I^oun with some title 
added to it; as, Mr. James White; Judge Wild; Dr* 
E. Smith. 

15. When an object without life, or a quality, is spoken to or spoken 
of as if it had life, it is said to be personified. The name of an object per- 
sonified ceases to be a common noun and becomes a proper noun; as, 
" Time, how few thy value weigh ! " " Peace and Plenty smile upon the 
earth." 

16. A common noun also becomes proper, when, with the word the 
before it, it denotes some particular place, object, or event, remarkable 
above others of the same name ; as, the Bar, the Park, the Commca, the 
Deluge. 

17. A proper noun becomes common, when it is used to denote, not 
an individual, but a whole class having the same general character, proper- 
ties, or profession as the individual to whom the name belongs ; as, " He 



42 ACCIDENTS OF NOUNS. 

is the Cicero of his age," — that is, the great orator of his age. " He will 
never become a Washington,^'' — that is, a person with the character of PFiisfe- 
ington. In these sentences, Cicero and Washington are common nouns. 

18. Common Nouns embrace Collective^ Abstract, 
and Verbal Nouns. 

A Collective Noun is the name of a body or collec- 
tion of individuals ; as, people^ flock^ council^ assembly. 

An Abstract Noun is the name of some quality; as, 
cheerfulness^ vanity, goodness, frailty. 

A Verbal Noun is the name of some action or state 
of being, and ends in ing; as, "the cheering of the 
multitude," " the singing of birds." 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences according to the 
models on page 31. Select the nouns, and tell whether 
they are common or proper; if collective, abstract, ver- 
bal, or complex, mention it in addition. 

Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, led an army against Amasis, 

The Thebans commenced hostilities with the Athenians. 

The thoughts of the diligent tend only to plenteousness. 

Slothfulness casteth into a deep sleep. 

Genius and learning walk in the train of virtue. 

In reason and in fact, character goes before scholarship. 

Steamboats and railroads are inventions of the present century. 

liord Bacon says, " Conversation makes a ready man ; writing, 
an exact man." 

Cabral, a native of Portugal, discovered Brazil, 



SECTION II. 
Accidents of Nouns. 



19. Accidents are the different j^roperties and in- 
flections of the parts of speech. 

The accidents of the noun are Person, Number, 
Gender, and Case. 



PERSON. 43 

Person. 

20. Person is that accident that distinguishes the 
speaker, the object spoken to, and the object spoken of. 

21. There are three Persons, known as the First, the 
Second, and the Third. 

The First Person denotes the speaker. 

The Second Person denotes the person spoken to. 

The Third Person denotes the object spoken of. 

22. Wiien you wish to know whether a noun is the first, the second, 
or the third person, ask whether it is the name of the speaker, a person 
spoken to, or an object spoken of. Thus: — *' I, Alexander, make this 
decree; " Alexander is the name of the speaker, and is therefore first per- 
son. — " men, why will ye die? " men is the name of the persons spoken 
to, and is therefore second person. — " All men are mortal; " here, men is 
the name of the objects spoken of, and is therefore third person. 

In one of the sentences just given, men is second person, and in another 
^^Vc? person; a change in person, therefore, makes no change in the form 
of the noun. 

23. Persons only can speak or be spoken to ; therefore, strictly speak- 
ing, the names of persons alone can be first or second person. Sometimes, 
however, animals and things without life are spoken to as persons, and in 
that case they are second person; as, " Death, where is thy sting V" 
Death is personified, and is second person. 

Any noun, no matter what it is the name of, may be third person, 
because any object can be spoken of. Almost all the noiins that we meet 
with in sentences are third person. 

24. Sometimes a speaker or writer, instead of using his name in the 
Jirst person, uses it in the third; as, " Mr. Lewis sends his compliments to 
Mr. Gray, and requests the pleasure of his company on Wednesday even- 
ing." Here Mr. Lewis is the speaker; but instead of saying / send, or /, 
Mr. Lewis, send, he uses the third person, Mr. Lewis sends. This is a polite 
form of address often employed in invitations. 

So, the third person is sometimes used for the second, as a more 
respectful form of address. In asking my father's foi'giveness, instead of 
saying, " Father, forgive me!" (in which case, father would be second 
person), I may say to him, " I hope my father will forgive me." In this 
case, father is third person. 



44 NUMBER. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze the following sentences according to the 
models given. Point out the nouns ; name their class 
and person. 

Thou, a worm, and I, another worm, will soon pass away from 
earth. Captain S. R. Jones will be happy to see Mr. I. Dewitt at 
his office on board of the Commodore as soon as convenient. O 
Grave, where is thy victory "? He is full of charity, and does not 
charity cover a multitude of sins 1 I, James Porter, hereby leave 
my brother Robert all my houses and lands, steamboats and railroad 
stock. 

Number. 

25. Number is the accident that distinguishes one 
from more than one. 

26. There are two Numbers, the Singular and the 
Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes one. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one. 

Boy is in the singular number, because it denotes one ; boys is in tho 
plural number, because it denotes more than one. 

27. Mules for forming the Plural Number, 

Rule I. — The plural of nouns is generally formed 
by adding s to the singular ; as, road, roads ; mountain, 
mountains. 

Annexing s to a word, to make it plural, often gives it an additional 
syllable. This is the case when the s does not unite in sound with the 
syllable to which it is added ; thus, the plurals of liorse^ house, page, rose, 
&c., have two syllables; as hors-es, hous-es, &c. 

Rule II. — Nouns ending in x, z, ss, sh, or ch sofl, 
form their plural by adding es to the singular; as, fox, 
foxes ; glass, glasses / adz, adzes ; lash, lashes / church, 
churches. 

Rule III. — Most nouns ending in f or fe form their 



IRREGULAR PLURALS. 45 

plural by changing these letters into ves / as, wife, wives ; 
loaf, loaves. 

Except the following nouns, -whicli, with their compounds, form the 
plural regularly by adding s ; — stHfe, ffe^ safe^ hrief^ chief, grief Tcer chief 
mischief, dwarf scarf turf surf gulf roof proof hoof reef serf and all 
nouns ending in ff. Wharf has two plurals, wharves and wharfs. 

Staff, as a military term (the staff of a general, that is the body of 
officers attending him), makes staffs in the plural. Staff, a cane, makes 
staffs and staves (the a in this latter word must have the same sound as in 
the singular, staff). The compounds of siq^ add s, to form their plural; 
as, distaff, distaffs, flag-staff, fag-staffs. 

Rule IY. — Nouns ending in y preceded by a conso- 
nant form theii plural by changing the final y of the 
singular into ics. Nouns ending in ?/ preceded by a 
vowel form their plural regularly; as, cry, cries/ study, 
studies ; valley, valleys ; boy, boys. 

Rule V. — Nouns ending in eo, lo, oo, and uo form 
their plm-al by adding s to the singular; as, cameo, 
cameos ; folio, folios ; bamboo, bamboos ; duo, duos. 

Nouns ending in o, preceded by any other letter than 
e, *, o or u., form their plural by adding es to the singular ; 
as, hero, heroes ; ^0X^2X0., potatoes. 

Except junto, Jwwios; canto, cantos; tyro, tyros; grotto, grottos; portico, 
porticos; solo, solos; quarto, quartos; octavo, octavos; duodecimo, duode- 
cimos ; halo, halos. 

Irregular Plurals. 

28. The plural of the following nouns is irregular: — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Man men Tooth teeth 

Child children Louse lice 

Woman women Goose geese 

Ox oxen Mouse mice 

29. Words ending in man form their plural in men when they are com- 
pounds of the word man; as, alcftrman, aldermen; statesman, statesmen; 
boatman, boatmen. When they are not compounds of the word man, they 
form their plural in raans ; as, Turcoman, Turcomans ; Mussulman, J/iis- 
sulmans; talisman, talismans. 



46 PLURAL OF FOREIGN W0RD3. 

30. The following nouns have two plurals, one 
regular and the other irregular, according to their 
meaning : — 

Singular, Plural. Plural. 

Brother brothers (of one family) brethren (of one society) 

Die dies (for coining) dice (for gaming) 

Genius geniuses (persons of genius) genii (spirits) 
Index indexes (tables) indices (algebraic signs) 

Pea peas (separate seeds) pease (a quantity of grain) 

Penny pennies (separate coins) pence (a sum of money). 

31. Some nouns are the same in the plural as in the singular; as, 
deer, sheep, salmon, bellows, cannon, means, series, species. 

32. Fish, in the plural, makes either Jish or Jishes. Summons makes 
summons or suvimonses. Gallows makes gallows, vulgarly, gallowses. Sail, 
a piece of canvas, makes sails; sail, a vessel, makes sail, — as, " Thirty sail 
were seen in the bay, with their sails torn." 

33. The nouns pair, brace, and some others, when preceded by a word 
expressing number, have the same form in the plural as in the singular; 
but when not so preceded, they form their plural by adding s or e« to the 
singular. We say two pair, three brace, but by pairs and braces. 

Plural of Foreign Words. 

34. Many nouns taken from foreign languages without 
change, retain their former plural in English. A few 
general rules for these nouns follow. 

I. Foreign nouns ending in on and wm, in the plural 
change these terminations into a. 

II. Foreign nouns ending in a, in the plural generally 
change a into ce, but sometimes into ata. 

III. Foreign nouns ending in us^ in the plural gener- 
ally change us into i, but sometimes into era. 

IV. Foreign nouns ending in zs, in the plural generally 

change is into es, but sometimes into ides. 

Examples of these loiles will be found in the following alphabetical 
table. 

35. When words adopted from foreign languages come into common 
nse, they veiy often, besides their foreign form, take a regular English 



PLURAL OP FOREIGN WORDS. 



47 



plural in s or e*. Such words as do this have the letter R placed after their 
foreign plural in the table. When, therefore, the letter R occurs, mention 
both forms ; as, apex, apices, and apexes. 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural 


Alumnus 


alumni 


Gymnasium 


gymnasia, R. 


Amanuensis 


amanuenses 


Hypothesis 


hypotheses 


Analysis 


analyses 


Ignis fatuus 


ignes fatui 


Animalculum 


animalcula 


Lamina 


lamina 


Antithesis 


antitheses 


Larva 


larvje 


Apex 


apices, K. 


Medium 


media, R. 


Appendix 


appendices, R. 


Memorandum 


memoranda, R. 


Arcanum 


arcana 


Metamorphosis 


metamorphoses 


Automaton 


automata, E. 


Miasma 


miasmata 


Axis 


axes 


Momentum 


momenta, R. 


Bandit 


banditti, R. 


Monsieur 


mes-sieurs 


Basis 


bases 


Nebula 


nebulEC 


Beau 


beaux, R. 


Oasis 


oases 


Calx 


calces, R. 


Parenthesis 


parentheses 


Cherub 


cherubim, R. 


Phasis 


phases 


Chrysalis 


chrysalides 


Phenomenon 


phenomena 


Datum 


data 


Radius 


radii 


Desideratum 


desiderata 


Scholium 


scholia, R. 


Diuresis 


diffireses 


Scoria 


scoriae 


Effluvium 


effluvia 


Seraph 


seraphim, R; 


Ellipsis 


ellipses 


Speculum 


specula 


Emphasis 


emphases 


Stamen 


stamina, R. 


Encomium 


encomia, R. 


Stimulus 


stimuli 


Ephemeris 


ephemerides 


Stratum 


strata 


Erratum 


errata 


Thesis 


theses 


Eocus 


foci 


Vertebra 


vertebra3 


Eormula 


formulae, R. 


Vertex 


vertices, R. 


Eungus 


fungi, R. 


Virtuoso 


virtuosi 


Genus 


genera 


Vortex 


■ vortices, R. 



Plural of Compound N^ouns, Xetters, c0c. 
36. Most compound nouns, in which the principal 
word stands first, vary the principal word to form their 
plural ; as, mother-in-law, mothers-in-law / court-mar- 
tial, courts-martial; commander-in-chief, commander s-ir^r- 
chief. 



48 PLURAL OF PROPER NOUNS. 

37. In a few compounds, both words take the plural 
form; as, man-servant, men-servants; woman-servant, 
womeii-servants, 

38. Nouns ending in ful and full, and compounds in which the prin- 
cipal word stands last, annex s or es, to form their plural; as, spoonful, 
spoonfuls; how\-fu\], bowl-fulls; man-trap, TOfl?Wmj9s ; step-son, step-sons. 

39. The names of letters, figures, &c., u&ed merely as names, take an 
apostrophe ( ' ) and the letter s, to form their plural ; as, " Your a's and o'« 
are too small; " " the 7's and 8's; " " do not omit the -f- '5." 

Other parts of speech used as nouns either want the plural, or form it 
regularly; as, His buts and ifs. 

Plural of Proper JVouns, 

40. Proper nouns generally have no plural ; as, Edith^ 
Plantagene% London^ Plato. 

41. The proper names of races, communities, and 
nations, and proper nouns applied to several individuals 
of the same family, name, or character, have a plural 
regularly formed ; as, the Turks., the Mormons., the Ger- 
mans., the Plantagenets\ there are iv^o JLoitdons on the 
map. # 

42. Complex nouns, preceded by a word expressing number (such as 
two, three, four), or when the title prefixed to the name is Mrs., add the 
plural termination'to the name, and not to the title; as, "the two Lord 
Coxes,'''' NOT " the two iorcZs Cox;" " the il/rs. Grays." 

43. Complex nouns that have any other title than Mrs. prefixed to the 
name, and are not preceded by a word expressing number, add the plural 
termination either to the title or the name, but not to both ; as, " the Misses 
Brush,'''' or " the J/f,ss Brushes,'''' — but not "the 3Ilsses Brushes;''^ "the 
Messrs. Browning," or " t]\e Mister Brownings," — but not "the 3fessrs. 
Brownings." 

44. When the title is applied to two different names, the title alone can 
receive the plural termination; as, ^^ Lords Cox and Shrewsbury;" "the 
Misses Brush and Forrester;" "the Jfisses Jane and Sarah Brush;' 
" Messrs. Haines and Herrick; " " Generals Lambert and Packenham." 

JVbuns found only hi one Nktmher, 

45. Some nouns, from the nature of the things they 
denote, have no plural. 



NOUNS OF ONLY ONE NUMBER. 49 

These are, — 1. The names of the metals ; as, gold, lead. 2. The names 
of virtues and vices; as, prudence, indolence. 3. The names of things 
weighed and measured, except when applied to different varieties of the 
same articles; as, jiour, wheat, molasses. 4. The names of arts and 
sciences; as, music, algebra. 5. The names of some diseases; as, cholera^ 
measles. 

The word news is now used only in the singular. The same may bo 
said of the names of sciences ending in s; as, maihemxitics, optics, &c. 

46. Some nouns have no singular. A table of some 
of these follows : — 



Annals 


Calends 




Hysterics 


Nones 


Antipodes 


Clothes 




Ides 


Riches 


Archives 


Drawers (an 


article Literati 


Shambles 


Ashes 


of dress) 




Lees 


Thanks 


Assets 


Dregs 




Letters (literatJire) Tidings 


Billiards 


Entrails 




Manners 


Vespers 


Bitters 


Goods 




Matins 


Victuals 


Bowels 


Hatches 




Minutise 


VitaJs 


Breeches 


Hose (stockings) 


Morals 


Wages 



Add to the above the names of things consisting of two parts; aSy 
mppers, pincers, scissors^ shears, snuffers, tongs. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Spell the plural of each of the following nouns: — 
Tax; brush; gas; monkey; attorney; fly; lady; Kberty; city; 

berry ; prodigy ; nuncio ; negro ; portico ; motto ; punctilio ; tyro ; 
elf; wolf; leaf; half; thief; handkerchief; life; knife; staff; flag- 
staff ; brother ; foot ; emphasis ; handful ; penny ; genus ; index ; 
father-in-law ; brother-in-law ; genius ; seaman ; soliloquy ; washer- 
woman ; dormouse ; talisman ; sheep ; ignus fatuus ; beau ; ox-cart ; 
Miss Black ; seraph ; step-daughter ; Master Vail ; Henry ; way ; 
pair. 

II. Analyze each of the following sentences. Select 
the nouns in order, state to what class they belong, and 
give the person and number of each. 

1. Mechanics and Optics are branches of Physics. 

2. The commander-in-chief of the army v/as a field-marshaL 

3. How many sheep and oxen are kiUed every year 1 

4 



50 GENDER. 

4. I, Paal, have written this letter with my own hand. 

5. Oats, wheat, and barley flourish in England. 

6. Will you cross the ocean, O mighty queen 1 

7. What means have you of learning the news ? 

Gender. 

47. Gender is the accident that distinguishes objects 
with respect to sex. 

48. There are three genders ; the Masculine, the 
Feminine, and the Neuter. 

The Mascuhne Gender denotes male animals. 
The Feminine Gender denotes female animals. 
The Neuter Gender denotes that which is neither 
male nor female. 

49. Some names are equally applicable to males or females; thus, 
parent may denote either /a^/ier or mother; child m?ij denote either son or 
daughter. The gender of such a noun depends on the sex of the object 
referred to. If applied to a male, its gender is masculine; if to a female, 
feminine; if it cannot be determined whether it is applied to a male or a 
female, it may be parsed as "masculine or feminine gender." 

50. Things without life have no sex, and therefore their names are 
neuter gender. Sometimes, however, they ai*e figuratively spoken of as 
having sex. Thus we say of a ship, "5/ie [instead of it] sails well;" and 
of the sun, "^e [instead of it] is rising." When objects of great power, 
size, or sublimity (such as death, the sun, winter, war) are thus spoken of, 
their names become masculine ; whereas objects distinguished for beauty, 
pleasantness, or fruitfulness (such as the earth, the moon, spring, peace) are 
spoken of as feminine. 

51. The names of animals, strictly speaking, are either masculine or 
feminine. Sometimes, however, when it is not important to regard the 
distinction of sex, the name of an animal is made neuter gender; as, "I 
raised a goat, and sold it [not him or her] ." " That child knows its father." 

52. When we use the name of an animal in a general way, to denote 
the whole species and not any particular individual, if the species is 
remarkable for boldness, strength, or ferocity, it is spoken of as masculine; 
but, if distinguished for gentleness, weakness, or timidity, it is made femi- 
nine. " The lion takes up his abode in deserts." " The cat is noted for 
fe«r love of home." 

53. Masculine nouns are used to denote persons of a certain piofessioa 



MODES OF DISTINGUISHING THE GENDERS. 



51 



or occupation spoken of generally as a class, even though females are 
included in the class ; as, " Poets are entitled to the gratitude of the 
•world," — meaning poetesses as well as poets. But if the reference is to an 
individual and not to a class, when there is a distinct form for each gender, 
the form appropriate to the sex of the individual should be used ; as, " the 
poet Homer,'" " the poetess Sappho." 

54. Collective nouns, when conveying the idea of unity, or when used 
in the plural form, are considered as neuter; as. The army destroyed every* 
thing in its course; but when reference is made to the objects composing 
the collection as individuals, they take the gender of the individuals de- 
noted. 

Modes of distinguishing the Genders. 

55. Some masculine nouns have corresponding femi- 
nine nouns. 

The feminine nouns are distinguished fi-om their 
corresponding masculine nouns in three ways. 

I. They may be entirely different words, as in the 
following list : — 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculin 


e. Feminine. 


Beau 


belle 


Gander 


goose 


Man 


woman 


Boy 


girl 


Gentleman 


lady 


Master 


mistress 


Brother 


sister 


Hart 


roe 


Nephew 


niece 


Back 


doe 


Horse 


mare 


Papa 


mamma 


Bull 


cow 


Husband 


wife 


Eam or buck ewe 


Drake 


duck 


King 


queen 


Son 


daughter 


Earl 


countess 


Lad 


lass 


Stag 


hind 


Father 


mother 


Lord 


lady 


Uncle 


aunt 


Friar or monk nun 


Male 


female 


Wizard 


witch 


II. 1 


^hey may 


have different terminations. 


The three 



principal feminine terminations are ess, ine, and ix/ as 
will be seen from the list below : — 



Masculine.. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Abbott 


abbess 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Actor 


actress 


Count 


countess 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Czar 


czarina 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Dauphin 


dauphiness 


Author 


authoress 


Duke 


duchess 


Baron 


baroness 


Emperor 


empress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Enchanter 


enchantreaa 



52 



CASE. 



Masculine, 


Feminine. 


Executor 


executrix 


Governor 


governess 


Heir 


heiress 


Hero 


heroine 


Host 


hostess 


Hunter 


huntress 


Jew 


Jewess 


Laadgrave 


landgravine 


Margrave 


margravine 


Marquis 


marcLioness 


Negro 


negi-ess 


Peer 


peeress 


III. 


In the case of 


of the words compouiK 


Landlord 


landlady 


Gentleman 


gentlewoman 


Peacock 


peahen 


He-goat 


she-goat 



Masculine. 


Femmine. 


Poet 


poetess 


Priest 


priestess 


Prince 


princess 


Prior 


prioress 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Sultan 


sultaness or sultana 


Testator 


testatrix 


Tiger 


tigress 


Tutor 


tutoress 


Widower 


widow 



the case of compounds, they may change one 



]\Ian-servant 
C )ck-sparrow 
Father-in-law 
Step-son 



maid-servant 
hen-sparrow 
mother-in-law 
step-daughter 



EXERCISE. 

Analyze each of the follomng sentences. Select the 
nouns ; state their class, and give the person, number, 
and gender of each. 

1. The Countess of Devonshire and her nephew, the Marquis, 
are noted for their amiability. 2. Are lords and ladies, peers and 
peeresses, any better than other men and women"? 3. An earl's 
wife is called countess ; but what is a marquis's wife called ? 4. Sun, 
moon, and stars, comets and planets, were Herschel's constant study. 

Case. 

56. Case is that accident of the noun that denotes its 
relation to other words. 

57. There are three cases ; the Nominative, the 
Possessive, and the Objective. 

58. The Nominative Case usually denotes the rela- 
tion which the grammatical subject bears to a finite 



CASE. 53 

verb. "Edward is reading;" Edward is the grammati- 
cal subject, and is in the nominative case. (See Lesson 
• VIII.) 

The nominative case may also be used, — 

1. As the Attribute of a sentence after the copula. Thus used it is 
termed the Predicate Nominative; as, Paul was an apostle. 

2. Without dependence on any other word. Thus used it is termed 
the Nominative Absolute; as, " The fathers, —where are they? " 

59. The Possessive Case denotes the relation of 
ownership or origin; as, "The Mayor's hat;" Mayor's 
is in the possessive case. 

The relation of ownership may also be denoted by the verb belong, a nd 
by the preposition of ; but nouns used after these words are in the objective 
case; as, " The hat belongs to the Mayor." " The hat of the Mayor." 

A noun in the possessive case is usually joined to another denotmg a 
diflferent person or thing. 

60. The Objective Case is used, — 

1. To denote the object in the predicate of a sen- 
tence that receives an action. "James struck Edward ;" 
here Edward is in the predicate, and receives the action 
expressed by the verb struck / it is therefore in the ob- 
jective case. 

2. To denote the object of such relations as are ex- 
pressed by «^, in, with, from, for, and similar Avords 
called prepositions ; as, at home, in Philadelphia, by faith, 
with dignity, from Europe, .for my sake. The nouns 
home, Philadelphia, faith, dignity, Europe, and sake are 
all in the objective case. 

3. To denote time, value, distance, and direction, 
without a governing word; as, "This year I shall go 
south?'' 

61. Nouns are used in the same case, when one noun is joined to 
another denoting the same person, place, or thing, in order to explain or 
identify it. In such constructions the explanatory noun is said to be in 
apposition with the other; as, Peter, the hermit, convinced Philip, the hing. 



54 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



62. Rules for forming the Cases. 

I. The objective case is like the nominative in both 
numbers. In the examples just given, Edward was 
found to be nominative case in one sentence, and objec- 
tive in another. 

II. The possessive singular is formed from the nomi- 
native singular by adding an apostrophe ( ' ) and s ; as, 
dog, dog'^s ; Charles, Charles'' s. 

III. The possessive plural is formed from the nomina- 
tive j^lural by adding an apostrophe to it if it ends in s, 
and an apostrophe and s if it ends in any other letter ; as, 
boys, boys' / men, merCs. 

When the las£ syllable of a word contains several s sounds, its posses- 
sive case is formed by adding an apostrophe alone ; as, Hoses' father, not 
Moses's father. So, when a word ending with an s sound stands before 
another word commencing with the same sound, the possessive case of the 
former takes the apostrophe alone; as, "for conscience'' sake; " " Charles' 
sins." In both these cases, the object is to prevent the two frequent recur- 
rence of the unpleasant hissing sound of «. 





SECTION 


III. 




♦ 


Declension of 


Nouns. 




68. Declension is the regular 


variation of the cases of 


nouns and pronouns in both numbers. 






EXAMPLES. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. King, 


kings. 


City, 


cities. 


Pass, king's, 


kings', 


city's. 


cities'. 


Obj. king. 


kings. 


city. 


cities. 


Nom. Man, 


men, 


Moses, 




Pass, man's, 


men's, 


Moses', 




Otj. man. 


men. 


Moses. 




Nom. Goose, 


geese, 


Gold, 




Poss. goose's, 


geese's, 


gold's, 




Obj. goose. 


geese. 


gold. 





DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 65 



EXERCISE. 

I. Spell the objective plural of the following nouns : 

Lad, key, negro, money, bamboo, knight-errant, lady, ice-house, fife, 
tooth, wife, ox, wolf, fisherman, Mussulman. 

II. Spell the possessive singular of the following 

nouns : — 

Desk, rat-trap, stove, Darius, cow, Barnabas, Xerxes, Thomas, city, 
goose, step-daughter, sister-in-law. 

III. Si^ell the possessive plural of the following 
nouns : — 

Woman, child, head, boatman, h«ro, city, goose, flag-stafi", vespers, 
pincers, scissors, mouse, book, potato, house, step-father. 

IV. Analyze the following sentences. Select the 
nouns, state their class, and give the person, number, 
gender, and case of each. Always observe the order just 
given. 

Form for parsing. — Noun, class, person, number, gender, case; rule. 
Parsing ModeL — The man's dog bit James. 

1. Man's is a common noun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, and possessive case, because it limits dog, according to Rule 
IX. A noun or pronoun lohich limits the meaning of a rvoun derating a differ- 
ent person or thing^ is put in the possessive, 

2. Dog is a common noun, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb bit, ac- 
cording to Rule XL Hie subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

3. James is a proper noun, third person, singular number, masculine 
gender, and objective case, because it is the object of the verb bit, accord- 
ing to Rule X. The object of a transitive verb or a preposition is put in the 
objective case, 

Franklin, the philosopher, was a native of Boston. 

4. Philosopher is a common noun, third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, nominative case, and is in apposition with Franklin, ac- 
cording to Rule I. A noun or pronoun annexed to another noun or pronoun and 
denoting the same person or thing, is put by apposition in the same case. 

5. Native is a common noun, third person, singular number, mascu- 
line gender, and nominative case, because it is used as the attribute after 



56 



RECAPITULATION. 



the intransitive verb was, according to Rule IV. A noun or pronoun in the 
predicate after an intransitive verb, and the passive of certain transitive verbs, 
IS put in the same case as the subject, when both words refer to the same person 
or thing. 

Note. — The teacher may anticipate the rules of Syntax or not, at his 
option. The most important rules will be given in the parsing models. 

The sun's rays disperse the darkness. The youth's diligence 
deserves praise. They took Joseph's coat, and killed a kid of the 
goats, and dipped the coat in the blood. The attraction of gravita- 
tion was discovered by Sir Isaac Newton ; but how little did New- 
ton himself realize the importance of that discovery ! Where are the 
Platos and the Aristotles of modern times ? Bonaparte swayed the 
destinies of Europe for a time ; but was he not finally defeated ? 
The prince obeys the king's command. Arnold's treason disgraced 
his name. 



RECAPITULATION. 



[ Proper. 



Noun. < 



(Proper; as, 'Washington. 
\ Complex ; as, Dr. Franklin, 



{Common ; as, tree. 
Collective ; as, army. 
Abstract ; as, vanity. 
Verbal; as, singing, 

i First. 
'Person. \ Second. 
(Third. 

( Singular, 
1 Plural. 



Accidents of Nouns. 



Number. 



Gender. 



Case. 



r Masculine. 

-l Feminine. 
( Neuter, 

C Nominative* 
■< Possessive. 
( Objective. 



EEVIEW QUESTIONS. 67 

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTEES I., H. 

[The numbers prefixed to the following questions refer to the 
numbered paragraphs of Part II., from which the answers may be 
obtained.] 

What is English Grammar ? Into what four parts is it divided ? To 
what does each relate? 1. What is a word? 2. Define Etymology. 3. 
What is a primitive word ? What is a derivative word ? What is a com- 
pound word ? How may you tell whether a word is a derivative or a com- 
pound? 4. When are words said to be declinable? When are words said 
to be indeclinable ? 5. How many words are there in the English language ? 
6. What are nouns? pronouns? adjectives? verbs? adverbs? preposi- 
tions? conjunctions? interjections? 7. What are parts of speech? How 
many parts of speech are there? 8. Which of the parts of speech are 
declinable? Which are indeclinable? Define Inflection. Define Acci- 
dents. 9. What is parsing ? 10. What is analysis ? 

11. WTiat is a noun? What is a substantive element? 12. How 
may we determine whether any given word is a noun or not ? 14. Into 
how many classes are nouns divided ? What is a common noun ? What 
is a proper noun ? 15, 16. In what two cases do common nouns become 
proper? 17. When does a proper noun become common? 18. Into what 
other classes are nouns divided ? What is a collective noun ? What is an 
abstract noun ? What is a verbal noun ? What is a complex noun ? 

19. How many accidents has the noun ? Name them. 

20. What is person? 21. How many persons are there? Name 
them. What does the first person denote? The second person? The 
third person? 22. How may you determine what person a noun is? 24. 
Show how the third person sometimes takes the place of the first and the 
second. 

25. What is number? 26. How many numbers are there? Name 
them. What does the singular number denote? What does the plural 
number denote? 27. Repeat Eule I. for forming the plural of nouns. 
Repeat Rule H. Repeat Rule III. Mention the words in /e and / that 
are exceptions to this rule. What is the plural of staff used as a military 
term? What is the plural of staffs a cane? Repeat Rule IV. Repeat 
Rule V. Mention the exceptions to this rule. 

28. What is the plural of child? Of mouse'? What is the singular of 
women ? Of teeth ? Of geese ? 

29. How do words ending in man form their plural ? 30. Give the two 
plurals of brother, and the meaning of each. Of die. Of genius. Of pea. 
Of penny. 

31. What is the plural of deer f Of cannon f Of Jish? Of summons f 
Of gallows ? Of sail? Of pair and brace? 

34. What is said of the plm'al of many nouns taken from foreign Ian- 



58 REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

guages? How is the plural of foreign nouns ending in on and um formed? 
Of foreign nouns ending in af Of foreign nouns ending in us f Of foreign 
nouns ending in is ? What is the plural of amanuensis f Of automaton f 
Of cherub ? Of gymnasium f Of vertebra f Of radius ? What is the singu- 
lar of memoranda f Of phenomena f Of indices f Of data f Of oases ? 

36. How do most compound words in which the principal word stands 
first form their plural ? 37. How do a few compounds, like man-servant, 
form their plm-al? 38. How do compounds ending in ful or full form their 
plural? How do compounds in which the principal word stands last form 
their plural? 39. How do the names of letters, figures, &c., used merely as 
names, form their plural? When other parts of speech are used as nouns, 
how do they form their plural ? 

40. Wliat nouns generally have no plural ? 41. When do proper nouns 
have a regularly formed plural? 42. How do complex nouns form theu 
plural, when they are preceded by a word expressing number? How, 
when the title prefixed to the name is Ifi-s. f 43. How do complex noun* 
form their plural when they are not preceded by a word expressing num- 
ber, and when the title prefixed to the name is not 3frs. f 44. What is tne 
rule for forming the plural when the title is applied to two different names ? 

45. What classes of nouns have no plural? How is the word news now 
used ? 46. Name some of the uo\ins that have no singular. 

47. What is gender? 48. How many genders are there? Name them. 
What does the masculine gender denote ? What does the feminine gender 
denote? What does the neuter gender denote? 49. When is a noun said 
to be of " masculine or feminine gender" ? 

60. What is the gender of things without life ? When objects without 
life are figuratively spoken of as having sex, which are made masculine ? 
Which, feminine? 51. What gender is the name of an animal sometimes 
made? 52. Give the rule that applies when we use the name of an animal 
in a general way. 53. What gender is used to denote persons of a certain 
profession, spoken of generally ? What gender must be used when refer- 
ence is made to an individual ? 

55. In how many ways are feminine nouns distinguished from the cor- 
responding masculine nouns ? ]\Iention these three ways. What is the fem- 
iniuQ of hart f Of nephew? Of marquis? Of duke f Of peacock? Of step-son? 

56. What is case? 57. How many cases are there? Name them. 
58. What does the nominative case denote ? 59. What does the possessive 
case denote ? How may the relation of ownership be denoted without the 
possessive case? 60. What does the objective case denote? For what 
purposes is the nominative case used? the possessive? the objective? 
W^hen are nouns in apposition ? 61. What is the objective case like? How 
is the possessive singular formed ? How is the possessive plural formed ? 
62. When does the possessive case take the apostrophe alone ? 

63. Define Declension. Decline the noun king. Decline lady ; Jireman, 
Charles; ox; silver. Ghe the form for parsing a noun. 



THE PEONOTJN. 59 

CHAPTER III. 

THE PEONOUlSr. 

64. A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun. 

" He reads." " She writes." " I study." In these sentences, he, she, 
and / stand for the names of the persons referred to, and are therefore 
pronouns. 

"The boy who plays;" "the cat which mews;" who, standing for 
boy, and which, standing for cat, are pronouns. 



SECTION I. 

Classes of Peonottns. 

65. Pronouns are divided into four classes ; Personal, 
Possessive, Relative, and Inten-ogative 

66. A Personal Pronoun is one that both represents 
a noun and shows by its form whether it is of the first, 
second, or third person ; as, J, thou, he. 

When I say, " he writes," instead of " Henry writes," he both stands 
for the noun Henry and shows by its form that it is of the third person. 

67. A Possessive Pronoun is one that represents at 
the same time the possessor and the thing possessed. 

" Your house is on the plain; ours is on the hill." Here 02<rs stands 
for our house, — our, the possessor, and house, the thing possessed ; therefore 
ours is a possessive pronoun. 

68. A Relative Pronoun is one that relates to a pre- 
ceding noun, pronoun, or equivalent expression, called its 
Antecedent. 

69. The term antecedent means going tefore ; and the word in question 
is so called because it generally goes before the pronoun. — " Napoleon, 
who had escaped from Elba, was defeated at Waterloo." Who is a relative 
pronoun, relating to the noun Napoleon as its antecedent. 

Tho antecedent is sometimes omitted, in which case it is said to be 



60 ACCIDENTS OP PRONOUNS. 

vnderstood; as, " Wlio steals my purse, steals trash." The antecedent of 
the relative who is person understood, — " [ The person] who steals my 
purse, steals trash." 

70. An Interrogative Pronoun is one that is used for 
asking a question. 

"Who is there?" "Which of my sons has returned?" "What do 
I hear V " The word who is used for asking the first question, which for the 
second, and what for the third; they are therefore interrogative pronouns. 

Questions are also introduced by adverbs, or are asked without intro- 
ductory words; as When did he come? Have you learned your lesson f 

The noun which the interrogative pronoun represents is always in the 
answer to the question, and is therefore unknown, or unmentioned. When 
interrogative propositions are incorporated into complex sentences, the 
proposition often loses much of its interrogative character; but as the noun 
for which the pronoun stands is unknown or unmentioned, the pronoun 
must still be regarded as inten*ogative ; hence, — 

The Interrogative Pronouns are also used in indirect 
questions, indefinite answers to direct questions, and de- 
pendent expressions of similar construction ; as, " I asked 
who was there." "I do not know which of your sons 
has returned." " We all learn, sooner or later, what the 
world is." 



SECTION II. 

Accidents of Pronouns. 

71. Pronouns have the same four accidents as nouns ; 
Person, Number, Gender, and Case. 

72. The person, number, and gender of a pronoun are 
always the same as those of its antecedent. 

Sometimes the form of a pronoun indicates its person, number, gender, 
and case. Thus he is always third person, because it denotes the person 
spoken of; singular number, because it refers to but one ; masculine gen- 
der, becaui=e it is applied only to male animals; and nominative case, 
because it denotes the relation expressed by the subject of the verb. Some 
pionouns, however, do not change their form in the different persons and 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 61 

numbers, genders and cases. Thus we may say, " The man that laughs," 
" The woman that sings," " The fire that burns." In the first of these 
expressions, the pronoun that is masculine, since it relates to man ; in the 
second, it is feminine, since it relates to woman ; in the third, it is neuter^ 
since it relates to Jire. In such a case, the only way of determining the 
gender of a pronoun is to refer to its antecedent. 



SECTION III. 

Declension of Pronouns. 
Personal Pronouns. 

73. The Personal Pronouns are subdivided into Sim- 
ple Personals and Compound Personals. 

Simple Personal Pronouns, 

74. There is one simple personal pronoun of the first 
person, — I. It is either masculine or feminine gender, 
according to the sex of the speaker. 

There is one simple personal pronoun of the second 
person, — thou. It is either masculine or feminine, ac- 
cording to the sex of the person spoken to. 

There are three simple personal pronouns of the 
third person, — Ae, masculine ; she, feminine ; and it, 
neuter. 

75. The simple personal pronouns are declined as 
follows : — 





FIEST PERSON. 


SECOND 


PERSON. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular, 


Plural. 


Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 


I, 

my, mine, 
me. 


we, 
our, 
us. 


Thou, 
thy, thine 
thee. 


you, ye, 
> your, 
you. 






THIRD PERSON. 




Singular, 
Worn. He, 
Poss. his, 
Obj. him, 


Plural. 
they, 
theu-, 
them. 


Siugnlar. 
She, 
her, 
her, 


Plural. Singular. Plural, 
they. It, they, 
their, its, their, 
them. it, them. 



62 COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

76. Mine and thine were formerly used instead of my and thy before 
nouns beginning with a, e, ?, o, and u not involving the sound of y ; as, mine 
eye, thine urn. This usage is now retained only in solemn style. 

Remarks on the Simple Personal Pronouns. 

77. In editorials and royal proclamations, we is often used instead of 7, 
when but one person is referred to ; as, " We, George III., king of Great 
Britain and Ireland, do hereby proclaim," &c. 

78. Thou, thy, thine, and thee are seldom used, except in solemn or 
poetical style. You and your take their place, representing nouns in the 
singular as well as the plui'al number. We say, " How do you do ? " whether 
we refer to one person or more than one. 

79. Ye, which is one of the forms of the nominative plural of thou, is 
very little used, except in solemn or poetical style. 

80. It is sometimes thrown in after a word expressing action merely 
for the sound, without refennng to any antecedent or adding anything to the 
sense ; as, " Trip it in the mazy dance. 

It is also used in the nominative case as the grammatical subject of a 
sentence, without referring to any particular antecedent; as, " /< is he." 
"/< thunders." 

81. Observe that the apostrophe ( ' ), which is the distinguishing mark 
of the possessive case of nouns, is not used in the possessive case of per- 
sonal pronouns ; we write its, not iVs, 

Compotmd Personal Pronouns, 

82. The compound personal pronouns are formed by 
combining the word self with certain cases of the simple 
personals. 

83. There are two compound personal pronouns of 
the first person, — myself and our self They are either 
masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the 
speaker. 

Ourself corresponds with the simple personal we, as used in editorials 
and royal proclamations with reference to a singular noun. 

84. There are two compound personal pronouns of 
the second person, — thyself and yourself They are 
either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the 
person spoken to. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 63 

Yourself corresponds with the simple personal you, as used in ordinary 
discourse with reference to a singular noun. 

85. There are three compound personal pronouns of 
the third person, — himself, mascuhne ; herself, feminine ; 
and itself neuter. 

86. The compound personals have no possessive case. 
They are the same in the objective as in the nominative, 
and are declined as follows : — 

FIRST PEESON. SECOND PEESON. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural, 

Norn. Myself, '\ Norn. Thyself, I 

Obf. myself, I j^^m. ourselves, %"• ^^^^elf, I ^^^^ yourselves, 

Norn. Ourself, ( %• ourselves. jvbm. Yourself, | Obj yourselves. 

06/. oiirself, J Obj. yourself, J 

THIRD PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Norn. Himself, themselves, Herself, themselves, Itself, themselves, 
Ob), himself, themselves. herself, themselves. itself, themselves. 

87. The syntactical relations of pronouns are generally 
the same as those of nouns. They have the same acci- 
dents and office in the sentence. 

Personal pronouns are parsed by declining them, 
and then stating their person, number, gender, case, 
and rule. 

Parsing Model. — Parse the pronouns in the sentence, " I thought she 
hurt herself." 

/ is a simple personal pronoun, thus declined : Nom. /, poss. my, obj. 
me; plural, nom. loe, poss. our, obj. us. It is found in the first person, sin- 
gular number, masculine or feminine gender, and is in the nominative case, 
because it is the subject of the verb thought, according to Rule I., — The 
subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case. 

5Ae is a simple personal pronoun (decline). It is found in the third 
person, singular number, and feminine gender, and is in the nominative 
case, because it is the subject of the verb hurt, according to Rule I., — The 
eubject, &c. 

Herself iz a compound personal pronoun (decline). It is found in the 



64 POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS- 

third person, singular number, and feminine gender, and is in the objective 
case, because it is the object of the verb hurt, according to Rule X., — T%c 
object of a transitive verb or preposition is put in the objective case. 

EXERCISE. 

Analj^ze tlie following sentences. Select and parse 
the nouns and pronouns in order. 

Did you say that they had drowned themselves, or did I misui- 
derstand you ? Diogenes lived by himself in a tub. J-end him your 
pen till he writes his exercise. How much we missed onr brother and 
your sister ! His mother herself wrote to me, did she not ? Time 
itself shall be no more. 

Possessive Pronouns. 

88. The possessive pronouns are inine, thine^ kis, its^ 
hers., ours., yours^ and theirs. 

Mine, thine, and his, as sometimes used, are personal pronouns in the 
possessive case. We may determine when they are personals and when 
they are possessives by observing whether they are joined to nouns. If so, 
they are personals in the possessive case; but if they represent their nouns 
understood, they are possessives. " It is his hat; " here his is joined to hat, 
and is therefore a personal pronoun in the possessive case. " Here is my 
hat, there is his ; " in this sentence his represents hat understood, and is a 
possessive pronoun. 

89. A possessive pronoun has the same person, number, gender, and 
case as the noun that it represents. To parse it, therefore, we must look at 
that noun. Thus: "Is that book yours?" Yours is here equivalent to 
your book, and is in the same person, number, gender, and case as book, — 
that is, third, singular, neuter, nominative. " Those boys are yours." 
Yours is here equivalent to your boys, and is in the same person, number, 
gender, and case as boys, — that is, third, plural, masculine, nominative. 

90. The possessive pronouns are indeclinable, and 
lack the possessive case. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Select and parse 
the nouns and the personal and possessive pronouns. 

That house is not ours ; it is theirs. These pens are not mine } 
they must be his or hers. That sister of yours has not come. His 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 65 

coat is made of cloth, but yours is not. How natural that you 
should like your country better than mine ! Where is that cane of 
yours which you showed me yesterday ? 

Relative Pronouns. 

91. The Relative Pronouns are subdivided into Sim- 
ple Relatives and Coni230und Relatives. 

Simple Helative Pronouns. 

92. There are four simple relative pronouns: — 
Who^ applied only to persons and things personified ; as, 

" the man who walks ; " " Peace, who smiles upon 

the land." 
Wliich^ applied only to irrational animals or things; as, 

" the horse which kicks ; " " the stove which 

smokes." 
That, applied either to persons, irrational animals, or 

things ; as, " the man that walks ; " " the horse 

that kicks ; " " the stove that smokes." 
What, which has the force of both antecedent and 

relative, being equivalent to the thing which, the 

things which, or that which. " I give what I can," 

is equivalent to " I give that which I can." 

93. The simple relatives are the same in the plural 
as in the singular. They are declined as follows : — 

Sing. ^ Plur. Sing. 4' Plur. Sing. ^' Plur. Sing. ^ Plur, 
Norn. Who, Which, That, What, 

Poss. whose, whose, 

ObJ. whom. which, that. what. 

94. TJiat is not a relative pronoun in every sentence. It is a relative 
only when wJio, whom, or which can be substituted for it without marring 
the sense. Thus: "The island that Columbus discovered was inhabited 
by savages; " here that is a relative, because we can substitute which for it, 
— " The island which Columbus discovered," &;c. " I knew that he would 

6 



6Q RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

go; " here that is not a relative, because we cannot say, "I knew who he 
would go," " whom he would go," or " which he would go." 

95. As has sometimes the construction of a relative pronoun, es- 
pecially after such, many, and same ; as, " The Lord added to the church 
daily such as should be saved." 

96. Relative pronouns always connect the clause in which they stand 
to the element of the sentence which contains the antecedent; as, " The man 
that does his duty will be happy." In this example, that introduces the clause 
^at does his duty, and connects it with the leading proposition, The man wiU 
he happy. 

97. What applies to things, and is used as a relative only when the 
antecedent is omitted; as, " I know what you want." 

98. Changes in person, number, and gender make no difference in 
the form of a relative pronoun. When, therefore, we wish to determine 
its person, number, and gender, we must look at its antecedent. " I, who 
speak unto you, am he;" Here the relative who is the same person, num- 
ber, and gender as Its antecedent /, — that is, first person, singular num- 
ber, masculine gender. 

99. In case, the relative is independent of its antecedent. To ascer- 
tain its case, we must look at the relation it sustains to its own clause. In 
the sentence, " I, who speak unto you, am he," who is in the nominative 
case, because it is the subject of the clause who speak unto you. " Tke 
house in which Shakespeare was born is still preserved." House, the ante- 
cedent, is nominative case ; but the relative which is objective, being the 
object of the preposition in. 

100. A simple relative pronoun is parsed by stating 
the antecedent to which it refers ; declining it and stat- 
ing its person, number, and gender, its relation to its 
antecedent, and rule; and its case (which depends on 
the relation it sustains to its own clause), its disposal, 
and rule. 

What must be resolved into the thing which or the 
things which (whichever makes the better sense), and 
antecedent and relative must be parsed separately. 
Parsing Model. — " We obey you, whom we love." 

Whom is a simple relative pronoun. It has you for its antecedent, and 
is thus declined: Nom. who, poss. whose, obj. whom; plural the same. It 
is in the second person, singular number, and masculine or feminine gen- 
der, because its antecedent you is, according to Rule XV., — Pronouns must 



COMPOUND EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 67 

agree mth their antecedents, or with the words for which they stand, inperson, 
number, and gender. It is in the objective case, because it is the object of 
the verb love, according to Eule X., — Theohject of a transitive verb &c. 

Let us know what we must do. 

What is a simple relative pronoun, equivalent to things which. 
Things, the antecedent part of what, is a common noun, third person, 
plural number, neuter gender, and is the object of the verb know, according 
to Rule X. (Eepeat it.) 

Which is a simple relative pronoun. It has things for its antecedent. 
(Decline it.) It is found in the third person, plural number, and neuter 
gender, because its antecedent things is, according to Rule XV. (repeat it), 
and is in the objective case after the verb must do, according to Rule X. 
(Repeat it.) 

EXEECISE. 

Select the relative and the antecedent in each of the 
following sentences. 

Parse the nouns, the personal, possessive, and rela- 
tive pronouns, according to the models given. 

Addison, who was a fine writer, and whose " Spectator " is justly 
famous, lived in the days of Queen Elizabeth. Galvanism was so 
called from Galvani, by whom its principles were discovered. Those 
who are contented are happy. The first newspaper that was ever 
issued appeared at Venice. There is nothing that I dislike so much 
as those who slander their neighbors. I have some grain that I have 
just bought, and some horses that I would like to sell. I know what 
you will say. Remember what you learn. What you have said as- 
tonishes me. 

Compound Relative Pronouns, 

101. The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed 
by combining ever and soever with the simple relatives. 

102. There are six compound relatives, — whoever 
and whosoever.^ whichever and whichsoever., whatever 
and whatsoever. 

Whoso, once used as a short form for whosoever, has now gone out of 
use, except in poetry. It is found only in the nominative case. 

103. The compound relatives, with the exception of whoever and 



68 COMPOUND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

whosoever, are indeclinable, and are never nsed in the possessive case. 

whoever and whosoever are the same in the plural as in the singular, and are 

declined like who, as follows: — 

Singular and Plural, Singular and Plural, 

Norn. Whoever, whosoever, 

Poss. whosever, whosesoever, 

Ohj. whomever, whomsoever, 

104. The compound relatives have the force of a 
relative and an indefinite antecedent ; as, the person or 
persons who^ the thing or things which, "Whoever 
dreads punishment deserves it," — that is, the person 
who dreads, &c. 

An antecedent must never be used before a compound relative, but is 
sometimes introduced after it for the sake of greater emphasis. It would 
be wrong to say, " He whoever dreads punishment deserves it;" but we 
read, *' Whosoever will, let him take of the water of life freely." 

105. In parsing, compound relatives and the simple 
relative what may be resolved into separate words, or 
may be considered as including the relative and the in- 
definite antecedent. Rules should be given for their 
disposal both as relatives and antecedents. Their form 
depends upon their use as relatives. 

Note. Compound relatives and what generally introduce substantive 
clauses which are used as the subject or object in place of the antecedent. 
The substantive clause may then be parsed instead of the antecedent, and 
the relative parsed as depending on an omitted antecedent. 

Parsing Form. — Compound relative, decline, person, number, gen- 
der, case as antecedent, rule ; case as relative, rule. 

Parsing Model. — I love whoever loves me. 

Whoever is a compound relative (decline it), third person, singular 
number, masculine or feminine gender; as antecedent, it is in the objective 
case after the verb love, according to Kule X. (repeat it); as relative, it is 
in the nominative case, and is the subject of the verb hves, according to 
ilule II. (Repeat it.) 

EXERCISE. 
Parse the nouns and pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 



INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 69 

"Whatever is mine is yours. Whichever of you conducts himself 
the better shall receive the prize. Whosesoever sins ye remit, they are 
remitted. I will see whatever I can. She will reward whoever 
deserves it. 

Interrogative Pronouns. 

106. The interrogative pronouns are who^ which, and 
what. They are declined hke the relatives loAo, which, 
what (see § 93). 

Who, which, and what, the interrogatives, are to be distinguished from 
who, which, and what, the relatives. If a question is asked with them, they 
are interrogatives; if they refer to an antecedent, and do not ask any ques- 
tion, they are relatives. " Who did this? " A question is asked with who, 
and it is therefore interrogative. — "Did you see the man luho did this?" 
Here, though a question is asked, it is not asked with 2:7^0 ; who refers to 
man for its antecedent, and is a relative. 

107. Interrogative pronouns are parsed by stating 
their person (which is always third), number, gender, case, 
and rule. 

Parsing Model. — Who knocks ? 

Who is an interrogative pronoun, third person, singular number, mas- 
culine or feminine gender, and nominative case, and is the subject of the 
verb knocks, according to Eule II. (Repeat it.) 

I care not whose friend he is. 

Whose is an interrogative pronoun, third person, singular number, 
masculine gender, and possessive case, and limits /HenJ, according to Eule 
IX. (Eepeat it.) 

EXERCISE. 

I. Analyze the following sentences, and parse the 
nouns and pronouns they contain. 

Who doubts that the planets are inhabited? What have you 
learned to day? Cornwallis asked who led the van. Whose hat is 
this, mine or yours ? Whom have we here, walking by herself ? 
Which of the stars is nearest to us ? I cannot tell which of them is 
nearest, but Sirius seems to me the brightest. From whom did shb 
hear the news 1 



70 THE ADJECTIVE. 

II. Compose three sentences containing a personal 
pronoun each, three containing possessives, three con- 
taining relatives, three containing interrogatives, three 
containing compound personals, three containing com- 
pound relatives. 



Pronouns. ^ 



RECAPITULATION. 

Personal ( Simple ; as, J 

( Compound ; as, myself. 

Possessive ; as, ours. 

Relative (Simple; as, w^Ao. 

( Compound ; as, whoever. 

Interrogative . . . . ; as, what f 



CHAPTER lY. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

108. An Adjective is a word joined to a noun or pro- 
noun, to qualify or limit its meaning. 

"An extensive landscape:" extensive qualifies the noun landscape, 
and is an adjective. "Five children;" Jive limits the signification of 
children, and is an adjective. 



SECTION I. 
Classes of Adjectives. 

109. Adjectives are divided into tAvo general classes, 
Descriptive and Definitive. 

110. A Descriptive Adjective is one that expresses 
a quality ; as, good, handsome, short. 

111. A Definitive Adjective is one that defines or 
limits the meaning of its noun or pronoun j as, two, the, 
these. 



THE ADJECTIVE. 71 

If -we say " good men," good tells what kind of men are meant; it 
expresses a quality, and is therefore a descriptive adjective. If, on the 
other hand, we say "two men," two tells how many men are meant; it 
defines or limits the number of men, and is therefore a definitive adjective. 

112. Among the most common definitive adjectives are an or a, <lfee 
one, two, three, &c.,Jirst, second, third, &c., this, that, Oiese, those, both, each, 
every, either, neither, some, other, any, one, all, such, much, many, no, or none, 
same, few. 

113. Descriptive adjectives and some of the definitives, preceded by 
thi, are often used without a noun; as, the rich, the wicked, "the last shall 
he first, and the first shall be last.^'' Here rich, poor, last, and first have the 
force of plural nouns. They should be parsed as adjectives used as nouns, 
third, 2ilural, masculine or feminine, &c. 

On the contrary, nouns placed before other nouns to express a quality, 
or the material of which a thing is made, are used as adjectives, and should 
be parsed as such; as, ^oZc? pens, brick houses, land breezes. 

EXEECISE. 

I. Join the descriptive adjective had to sucli nouns as 
you can recollect; also the descriptive adjectives sweet, 
hard., bitter., small., idle., selfish^ rounds hungry. 

Example. — Bad boys, bad bread, bad lessons, &c. 

II. Join the definitive adjective those to such nouns 
as you can recollect; also the definitive adjectives the, 
this., each., several., fifteen., tenth, any, that. 

Example. — Those women, those apples, those stones, &c. 

III. Join first a descriptive and then a definitive ad- 
jective to each of the fi)llowing nouns : — 

— moon —parents — tree — grass 

— home — rose —house — mouse 

Example. — Silvery moon ; the moon. 

IV. Pick out the descriptive and the definitive adjec- 
tives in the following expressions : — 

The lofty sky. That silent orb. This shaggy brow. Auburn 
locks. The impetuous tempers of these passionate men. A gentle 
moon. -Many dark clouds. The same turbid stream. One of those 
dashing waves. The first gleam of rosy mom. He is short, she is 
shorter, you are shortest* 



72 DESCRIPTIVE AND DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

Descriptive Adjectives. 

114. Besides the common adjectives expressing qual- 
ity, as good^ had^ happy, we have two classes of descrip- 
tive adjectives. 

I. Proper Adjectives, or such as are derived from 
proper nouns ;• as, American, Alpine, Newtonian. 

II. Verbal Adjectives, or such as are derived fi'om 
verbs (or words that assert) and end in ing or ed ; as, 
enduring fi-om the verb endure, bereaved fi'om the 
verb bereave, "Enduring friendship." "A bereaved 
parent." 

Definitive Adjectives. 

115. Definitive adjectives include, — 

I. The, and an or a, two words constantly occurring, 
by some grammarians made a distinct part of speech 
called Articles. 

II. Numeral Adjectives, or such as denote number; 
as, one, two, &c. ; first, second, &c. 

III. Pronominal Adjectives, or such as are sometimes 
used with nouns as adjectives, and sometimes in their 
place as pronouns. 

*' This course is wrong; " here tliis is used with the noun course, and is 
a pronominal adjective. " This is wrong; " here this takes the place of its 
noun, and is to be parsed as 2>. pronominal adjective used as a pronoun. 

The. — An or A. 

116. 77ie and an or a are used only with nouns. 
They always stand before the nouns whose meaning they 
limit, either immediately, or with some other modify- 
ing word or words between them ; as, the bird, the little 
bird, an owl, an uficly and ill-tempered owl. a bird, a very 
lively bird. 



USE OP AN AND A, 73 

11.7. The is used with both singular and plural 
nouns; as, the arm, the arms. An or a (denoting but 
one) is used only with a singular noun ; as, an arm, a 
foot (not an arms, a feet). 

A has been formed from an by dropping n. An and one have a com- 
mon origin, — the Saxon word an, ane. By custom one is used in number- 
ing, while an is employed as a definitive adjective to denote an individual, 
either definitely or indefinitely. 

118. The definitive the is used before specific individuals or classes of 
objects, as distinguished from others of the same kind; as, "i/ie laws of 
morality; " *' the hope of the Christian; " " the sun; " " the earth." 

It is also used with singular nouns to denote the whole species, or an 
indefinite number; as, "77;e almond-tree shall flourish." 

119. An or a is used definitely to designate an individual object as 
known, certain, or specified; as, " I hear a sound; " " I see an elephant;" 
"it weighs an ounce." 

An or a is used indefinitely to denote some individual of a class or 
species, without specifying any particular one; as, "^ kingdom for a 
horse." Here, a specifies no particular kingdom or horse, but merely 
denotes one of each. 

120. In such expressions as to go a riding, a Jishing, a swimming, &c., 
a appears to have been formed from at, to which it is equivalent in mear- 
ing. In such a connection, it is to be parsed, not as a definitive adjective, 
but as a preposition. 

Use of An and A. 

121. An and a are the same word, and convey ex- 
actly the same idea, but a distinction is to be observed in 
their use. 

An is to be used 

1. Before all words commencing with a, ^, and o 
(except one and its compounds, and once). 
• 2. Before words commencing with e not followed by 
u or 10. 

3. Before words commencing with Uy when its sound 

does not involve that of y. 

4. Before words commencing with silent A, — that is, 

h not sounded J as, hour (pronounced our). 



74 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

5. Before words commencing with h sounded, if the 
accent is on the second syllable ; as, an hero'io 
action. 

A is used in all other cases. 

Examples. — An apple, an inkstand, an orange, an eel, an um, an 

hour, an histo'rian, an Hero'dian. 
But, — A bee, a comb, a pin, a year, a wind, a one-eided story, a ewer, 

a eulogist, a he'ro, a his'tory, a hippopot'amus. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Correct the following sentences, and give the 
reason for making the correction. — Select the adjectives, 
and tell whether they are descriptive or definitive. 

The clock is a hour and an half too fast. A honest man sold me 
a ox. A Indian is a hard master. Such an one can be a upright 
judge. A early pear will keep but an short time. A old coat is an 
useless garment. A idle man stole an horse fi-om a honest one. A 
ounce of prevention is worth an hundred pounds of cure. In an once 
lordly house lives a one-eyed woman. She has an handsome goat and 
an ewe. A European war calls out many an hero and exhibits many 
an heroic act. 

II. Insert an or a (as may be required) before each 
of the following words : — 

youth head errand handTcerchief 

castle herb eulogy harp'sichord 

onion eye wonder harmon'ica 

Numeral Adjectives. 

122. Numeral Adjectives are subdivided into Cardi- 
nals, Ordinals, and Multiplicatives. 

The Cardinals denote hoio many ; as, one^ two, three, 
ten, ninety-nine, &g. 

The Ordinals denote which in order ; as, first, second^ 
third, tenth, ninety-ninth, &c. 

The Multiplicatives denote how many fold ; as, single, 
double, triple. 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 75 

Both cardinals and oi'dinals must be distinguished from nouns identical 
•with them in form. " Twenty can be divided by <wo." '■'■Four is an even 
number." "Three times six is eighteen." "Give me a third.'''' "One 
tenth of the army." Here, twenty, two, four, &c., are the names of numbers, 
and therefore nouns. 

Pronominal Adjectives, 

123. Pronominal Adjectives are subdivided into Dis- 
tributives, Demonstratives, and Indefinites. 

124. The Distributives represent the individual ob- 
jects composing a certain number as taken separately. 
There are four distributives; each., every, either., and 
neither. 

125. The Demonstratives clearly point out individual 
objects. The demonstratives are this., plural these; and 
that., plural those. 

This and these refer to what is near or present; that and those, to what 
is remote or ab>ent. This man means the man who is near or present; 
^at man, the man who is at a distance or absent. " The path of pleasure 
and the path of duty lie before us ; that leads to ruin, this to happiness." 
That refers to the first-mentioned object as the more distant, the path of 
pleasure; this, to the last-mentioned, the path of duty. 

126. The Indefinites designate objects in a general 
way, without pointing out any in particular. 

The principal indefinites are some, any, all, such^ 
same, former, latter, own, little, much, both, several, many, 
few, no or none, one, other, another, lohich, whichever ., 
whichsoever, wha^t, whatever, whatsoever. 

127. The indefinites, with the exception of one, other, and another, used 
as pronouns, are indeclinable, and are not found in the possessive case. 
Another has no plural; one and other bctq found in both numbers. Their 
declension is as foUows : — 

Sing. Plur. Sing. 

Nom. One, ones, Other, 

Poss. one's, ones', other's, 

Obj. one, ones. other, 



Plur. 


Sing. 


others. 


Another, 


others', 


another's, 


others. 


another. 



76 RECAPITULATION. 

HemarJcs on the Indefinites. 

128. Some, any^ all, such, same, former, latter, and oion are used with 
or in place of either singular or plural nouns; as, som.e bread, some men. 
"/Some is good, the rest is bad." "^Some are good, others bad." 

129. Little and much are used with or in place of singular nouns only; 
as, little wealth, man needs but little. 

130. Both, several, many, and few are used with or in place of plural 
nouns onlj^; as, both sentences, both are happy. 

131. No or none are different forms of the same word. No is the ad- 
jective form — that is, the form used with a noun (either singular or 
plural); as, no man, no men. None is the pronoun form, — that is, the 
form used instead of a noun (either singular or plural); as, none is happy, 
none are happy. 

132. Wldch, whichever, whichsoever, what, whatever, whatsoever, have 
been already mentioned among pronouns. They are indefinite pronominal 
adjectives (indeclinable and not found in the possessive case), when used 
with nouns; as, "Which way did he go?" "Whichever way he goes." 
" Whatsoever course he pursues." 

133. It may seem stx-ange that one can have a plural. But it must be 
remembered that it is not the number one, the cardinal adjective, that is 
declined above, but the pronominal adjective. " The world runs after 
great men, neglects good ones.^'' Here ones is a pronominal adjective used 
instead of men, and is in the plural number. 

134. Own is used after possessive pronouns and the possessive case of 
nouES and pronouns with or without its noun, to bring out the idea of pos- 
session more emphatically; as. Mine oion heart. Napoleon's own guard. 
Napoleon's own. " He came to his own, and his own received him not." 

EXERCISE. 

I. Analyze the following sentences. Pick out the 
pronouns and adjectives, and state to what class they 
belong. 

How long this will be remembered ! That event has been re- 
corded. One is apt to love one's self. Some were wise, others were 
foolish. Much labor has been bestowed on both subjects. Many hours 
have been wasted. A few days will determine his destiny. Let 
others boast ; I will be silent. All must die ; none can escape. A 
thousand soldiers were encamped. What can be thought of those that 
forsake their own 1 I will give to this object the tenth part of what- 
soever I possess. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 77 

II. Complete the following sentences by inserting 
adjectives of the classes specified : — 

Dogs are (descriptive adjective). (Proper adj.) horses are strong. 
Music is a (verbal adj.) accompaniment to the voice. America has 
been called (definitive adj .) land of (definitive adj.) free. There are (cardi- 
nal) days in (cardinal) week. Sunday is the (oi'dinal) day of (definitive) 
week. Let (distributive) passenger hold his (indefinite) ticket. The joys 
of (demonstrative) world are fleeting. Men praise (demonstrative) who 
succeed. (Indefinite) must die. There are (indefinite) men that are 
really happy. (Indefinite) eyes can look upon (demonstrative) mourn- 
ers without compassion ? 



SECTION II. 
CoMPAKisoN OP Adjectives. 

135. A quality belonging to an object may be com- 
pared with the same quality in some other object, or in 
the same object under different circumstances. 

Examples. — The same quality in three different objects may be com- 
pared as follows : — 

L'on is hard; hardness is a quality of iron. 

Steel is harder than iron ; hardness is a quality of steel, "and belongs to 
it in a higher degree than to iron. 

Diamond is the hardest of the three ; hardness is a quality of diamond, 
and belongs to it in a higher degree than to either iron or steel. 

The same quahty in three different persons may be compared as fol- 
lows : — 

At^'seman; a wiser man than he; the wisest ma.n of the three, or 
of all. 

The same quality as exhibited in the same object under different cir- 
cumstances may be compared as follows: — 

The boy was mischievous at home, more mischievous at school, but moat 
mischievous at church. 

136. Comparison is the variation of an adjective to 
denote the same quality in different degrees. 

137. There are three degrees of comparison ; ^-he 
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 



78 RULES FOR FORMING THE DEGREES. 

The Positive expresses the simple quality; as, mildf 



The Comparative expresses a higher or lower degree 
of the quality than that expressed by the positive ; as, 
milder^ less mild. 

The Superlative expresses the highest or lowest de- 
gree of the quality ; as, tnildest^ least mild. 

138. The superlative does not always imply comparison. When 
formed with mo&t and not preceded by the^ it implies merely a very high 
degree of the quality ; as, a mo&t beautiful landscape, — that is, an exceed- 
ingly beautiful landscape. So used, it is called the Superlative of Excel- 
lence. 

139. Without comparing an adjective, an inferior degree of the quality 
denoted by it may in some cases be expressed by appending ish to the pos- 
itive ; as, sweetish, darkish, — equivalent to slightly sweet, somewhat dark. 

Mules for Forming the Degrees. 

140. Rule I. — Adjectives of one syllable are com- 
pared by annexing to the positive er for the compara- 
tive^ and est for the superlative ; as, warm^ warmer^ 
warm^est. 

Adjectives ending in silent e drop this letter before er and est ; as, 
wise wiser wisest tame tamer tamest 

NOT wiseer wiseest not tameer tameest 

The final letter of certain adjectives is doubled before er and est : as, 
^t, Jitter, fittest ; hot, hotter, hottest. 

Rule II. Adjectives of two or more syllables form 
their comparative degree by prefixing the adverb more to 
the positive, and their superlative by prefixing the adverb 
most; as, skilful, mare skilful, most skilful / enterpris- 
i7ig, more enterprising, most enterprising. 

Some adjectives of two syllables are compared with er and est when 
they can be easily pronounced; as, hfty, loftier, loftiest; handsome, hand- 
somer, handsomest. 

In this case, if the adjective ends in y, it changes y to i before er and 
esi ; as, noisy, iwisier, noisiest. 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 



79 



Rule HI. — To express a lower degree of the quality- 
denoted, a comparative is formed with less ; and to ex- 
press the lowest degree, a superlative with least ; as, 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


"Warm, 


less warm. 


least warm. 


Skilftd, 


less skUful, 


least skilfal. 


Enterprising, 


less enterprising, 


least enterprising. 



Irregular Comparison, 

141. The following adjectives are irregular in their 
comparison : — 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


,8up. 


Good 


better. 


best. 


Near, 


nearer. 


nearest, next. 


Bad, or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Fore, 


former. 


foremost, first. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 




Colder, 
(elder. 


oldest. 


Mnch, 


more. 


most. 


Old, 


eldest. 


Many, 
Late, 


more, 
later. 


most, 
latest, last. . 


Far, 


C farther, 
(farther. 


farthest^ 
farthest. 



142. Lesser is sometimes used instead of less; as. Lesser Asia, the 
lesser faults. 

143. Late, when it refers to time, makes later, latest ; as, late news, later 
news, the latest news. When it refers to order, it makes latter, last; as, the 
latter of two clauses, the last of his race. 

144. 6)^ has two forms: older, oldest, equally applicable to persons 
and things; elder, eldest, applicable only to persons of the same family. 
We say, the oldest man, the oldest city; but, an elder sister, the eldest of the 
family. 

145. Of the two comparatives of far, farther implies distance, further 
quantity. " Troy is farther than Albany," — that is, at a greater distance. 
" Have you anything farther to suggest ? " — that is, anything more. 

146. Some adjectives form their superlative in most :^ 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Hind, hinder, hindmost or hindermost. 

Low, lower, lowest or lowermost. 

147. Some adjectives have no positive degree, foiming 
their comparative aftid superlative from adverbs : — 



80 



PARSING OF ADJECTIVES. 



P08. 

(In) 
(Out) 

(Up) 



Comp. 

inner, 
C outer, 
(utter, 

upper, 



inmost or innermost, 
outmost or outermost, 
utmost or uttermost, 
upmost or uppermost. 

have.no comparative degree. 

Pos. Sup. 

Rear, rearmost. 

Southern, southernmost. 

Western, westernmost. 

express qualities which do not 
cannot be compared. Among 



148. Some adjectives 

Pos. Sup. 

Front, frontmost. 

Northern, northernmost. 

Eastern, easternmost. 

149. Adjectives that 
exist in different degrees 
these are, — 

1. All definitives except little, much, many, few, former, latter. 

2. All proper adjectives ; as, Russian. 

3. All adjectives expressing figure, and generally those implying maU 
ter, time, and place ; as, square, golden, daily. 

4. All adjectives denoting the highest or lowest degree of the quality; 
as, infinite, empty. 

Some adjectives have the force of the comparative or the superlative 
without its form ; as, preferable, superior, extreme, chief. Such adjectives 
are to be regarded as in the positive degree, and cannot be compared; 
though sometimes, to strengthen their meaning, we find some of them used 
in the superlative degree in poetry ; as, extremest, chief est. 

EXERCISE. 
Compare the following adjectives : — 

High Grateful Good Never-ending "Wooden 

Low Unmindful Little Generous Inferior 

Small Cheerful Happy Penurious Round 

Great Attractive Lofty Extravagant English 



SECTION III. 
Parsing op Adjectives. 
150. Adjectives have no accidents except compari- 
son. To parse them, state the class to which they be- 
long ; if they admit of comparison, compare them and 
mention their degree; if not, state the fact; tell to 



PARSING OF ADJECTIVES. 81 

what noun they belong, — that is, what noun they de- 
scribe or limit. 

Pronominal adjectives used as pronouns are to be 
parsed like pronouns. Tell their person, number, gender, 
case. 

To find the noun or pronoun to which an adjective belongs, ask a 
question with what, as shown below. Whatever answers the question is 
the word required. "Wicked men are abundant." Wicked what'? An- 
swer, wicked meij : wicked belongs to men. — What are abundant f An- 
swer, MEN : abundatU belongs to men. 

Form, for Parsing. 
Adjective. — Class, compare, degree, modifies, rule. 

irw . , ^ T. i Used as adjective, limits, r^^Je. 

Pronominal Am. Wt ;j i. 

'^ ( Used as pronoun, person, number, 

gender, disposal, rule. 

Parsin*?^ Model — The Swiss hunters of this moutttain regioa 
are the most enduring of all. 

The is a definitive adjective, cannot be compared, and belongs to huTii- 
ers, according to Rule XIV., — An adjective belongs to Hie noun or pronoun 
ivhsse meaning it qualifies or limits. 

Sums is a proper adjective, cannot be compared, and belongs to huni- 
tSh, according to Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 

This is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, used as an adjective, 
cannot be compared, and belongs to region, according to Rule XVII., — Pro- 
iwminal adjectives belong to the nouns which they Umit, or are used alone as 



Mountain is a noun used as an adjective, cannot be compared, and be- 
longs to region, according to Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 

Most enduring is a verbal adjective; compared, enduring, more enduring, 
most enduring ; superlative degree ; and belongs to hunters, according to 
Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 

All is an indefinite pronominal adjective used as a pronoun, third, plu- 
ral, masculine, objective, and is the object of the preposition of, according 
to Rule X. (Repeat it.) 

I bought some handsome books yesterday: they are superior to 
these in every point of view. 

Some is a pronominal adjective, cannot be compared, and belongs to 
iooksj according to Rule XVI. (Repeat it.) 
6 



82 



PARSING OP ADJECTIVES. 



Handsome is a descriptive adjective; com^oxQ^, hcmdsome, "handsomer^ 
handsomest ; positive degree ; and belongs to books, according to Rule XVL 
(Repeat it.) 

Superior is a descriptive adjective, cannot be compared, and belongs to 
ihey^ according to Rule XVL (Repeat it.) 

These is a demonstrative pronominal adjective used as a pronoun; 
third, plural, neuter, objective, and is the object of the preposition to, ac- 
cording to Rule X. (Repeat it.) 

Eve7'y is a distributive pronominal adjective, cannot be compared, and 
belongs to point, according to Rule XVII. (Repeat it.) 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nouns, 
pronouns, and adjectives they contain. 

Whichever way I turn, I see no practicable means of escape. Let 
none be banished except the thirty tyrants. What could have in- 
duced the French and Austrians to engage in this most bloody war ? 
There are twenty-four stars of the first magnitude, each of which you 
have seen. How many comets, from the most distant regions of space, 
have visited the solar system ! The Western continent is colder than 
the Eastern at corresponding latitudes. The flame burns bright and 
clear. Keen blows the wind, and piercing is the cold. A light shineth 
in the path of the upright. The young blood of modern literature has 
put new life into the literature of the dead languages. All the features 
of a great heroic age, from which European civilization dates, and 
political and domestic order takes its rise, stand forth in living reality. 
He is happier than thou. 

The encumbered oar scarce leaves the hostile coast, 
Through purple billows and a floating host. 



RECAPITULATION. 



Adjectives. 



Descriptives. 



Definitives. 



Common . . . . ; as, good. 
Proper J as, American. 

. . . ; as, bereaved. 

a and the. 

Cardinals ; as, one. 

Ordinals; as, Jirst. 

Multiplicatives ; as,double. 

Distributives ; as, each. 

Demonstratives ; as, this. 

Indefinites ; as, some. 



Verbal 
Articles -. 

Numerals 



Pronominals. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 83 



REVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTERS IH., IV. 

64. What is a pronoun? 65. How are pronouns divided? 66L 
What IS a personal pronoun? 67. What is a possessive pronoun? 68. 
What is a relative pronoun ? 69. What does the term antecedent mean ? 
Why is it so called? When it is ssLid to he understood f 70. What is an 
interrogative pronoun ? In what besides direct questions are interrogative 
pronouns used ? How may questions be asked without interrogative pro- 
nouns ? 

71. What accidents have pronouns ? 72. How can the person, number, 
gender, and case of a pronoun be told when they are not indicated by its 
form? 

73. How are the personal pronouns subdivided? 74. Name the simple 
personal of the first person. Of the second. Name those of the third 
person. 75. Decline /; ihou; he; she; it. 76. Where were mine and 
thine formerly used? 77. In what is we often used instead of If 7b. To 
what style is thou appropriate? What takes its place in ordinary lan- 
guage? 79. In what style is ye used? 80. Show how it is sometimes 
used without referring to any antecedent. 81. Is the apostrophe used or 
omitted in the possessive case of nouns? Of personal pronouns? 82. 
How are the compound personal pronouns formed ? 83. Name the com~ 
pound personals of the first person. 84. Of the second. 85. Of the third. 
Give the gender of each. 86. Decline myself; ourself; thyself; yourself; 
himself; herself; itself. 87. How are personal pronouns parsed ? 

88. Name the possessive pronouns. How are we to determine when 
mine, thine, his, and its are personals, and when possessives ? 89. What per- 
son, number, gender, and case has a possessive pronoun? 90. What case 
do the possessive pronouns lack ? 

91. How are the relative pronouns subdivided? 92. Name the simple 
relatives, and tell to which each is applied. 93. Decline who ; which ; 
what. 94. When is that a relative pronoun ? 95. When has as the con- 
struction of a relative pronoun? 96. What office do relative pronouns 
have ? 97. When is what used as a relative ? 98. How are we to deter- 
mine the person, number, and gender of a relative ? 99. How are we to 
ascertain the case of a relative? 100. How is a simple relative parsed? 
How is what parsed? 101. How are the compound relative pronouns 
formed? 102. Name the compound relatives. 103. Which of them are 
indeclinable ? Decline whoever ; whosoever. 104. What is the force of the 
compound relatives ? How may an antecedent be used with a compound 
relative ? 105. How are compound relatives parsed ? 

^ 106. Mention the interrogative pronouns. How are they declined ? 
How can who, wiich and whatj as interrogatiyes, be distinguished frora 



84 EEVIEW QUESTIONS. 



the same words as relatives? 107. How are interrogative pronouns 
parsed? 



108. What is an adjective ? 109. How are adjectives divided ? 110. 
What is a degcriptive adjective? 111. What is a definitive adjective? 
112. Mention some of the most common definitive adjectives. 113. Under 
what circumstances are adjectives used as nouns? How should they then 
be parsed? How are nouns sometimes used as adjectives? 

114. What two classes are embraced under the head of descriptive ad- 
jectives? Define each. 115. What are included among definitive adjec- 
tives ? What are the and an or a sometimes called ? What are numeral 
adjectives? Pronominal adjectives? 

116. With what are the and an or a used? How do they stand? 
117. With nouns of what number is the used? An or af What is the 
origin of an or one, and the difference in their use? 118. What is the 
force of the? 119. What is the force of an or a used definitely? Used 
indefinitely? 120. How is a to be parsed in the expression to go a riding t 
121. Before what words is an to be used? Before what words must a be 
used? 

122. How are numeral adjectives subdivided? What do cardinals 
denote? Ordinals? From what must cardinals and ordinals be distin- 
guished? What do multiplicatives denote? 

123. Into what classes are pronominal adjectives subdivided? 124. 
How do the distributives represent objects? 125. The demonstratives? 
What is the difference between this, these, and thai, those? 126. How do 
the indefinites designate objects? Mention the principal indefinites. 127. 
Which of the indefinites are declined? Decline one ; other ; another. 128. 
Which of the indefinites are used with either singular or plural nouns? 
129. Which are used with singular nouns only? 130. Which with plural 
nouns only? 131. What is the diff"erence in use between no Sind nonet 
132. When are which, whichever, &c., pronominal adjectives? 133. How 
can one have a plural ? 134. How is own used ? 

135. With what may a quality belonging to an object be compared? 
Give examples. 136. What is comparison ? 137. How many degrees of 
comparison are there ? What does the positive degree express ? The com* 
parative? The superlative ? 138. Define the superlative of excellenca 
139. How may an inferior degree of a quality be expressed? 

140. What is Rule I. for forming the degrees? What changes art 
made in certain adjectives before er and est are appended? Repeat Rule 
II. How are some adjectives of two syllables compared? In this case, if 
the adjective ends in y, what change is made? Repeat Rule III. 141. 
Give one or two examples of adjectives iiTegularly compared. 142. What 
is sometimes used instead of less ? 143. What is the difference between 
later, latest, and latter, last ?* 144. Between older, oldest, and elder, eldest t 
145. Between the two comparatives of yhr t 



THE VERB. 85 

146. In what do some adjectives form their superlative ? 147. Give 
an example of adjectives that form their comparative and superlative from 
adverbs. 148. Give an example of those that have no comparative degree. 
149. What adjectives cannot be compared? What degree is preferable f 
Extreme f Name the classes of adjectives that are not compared. 150. 
How are adjectives to be parsed? How are pronominal adjectives used as 
pronouns to be parsed ? How can you find the noun or pronoun to which 
an adjective belongs ? 



CHAPTER Y. 

THE VERB. 

151. A Yerb is a word by means of which something 
is affirmed. 

Note. — ■ The word affirm is here applied to the office of the verb in 
direct and indirect assertions, commands, entreaties, and inquiries. 
Birds sing. Sing, pretty birds. 

Let the birds sing. Do the birds sing ? 

In each of the above sentences, sing is a verb, because with it some- 
thing is affirmed. 

Is Italy free ? — /s is a verb, because it affirms respecting the state of 
Italy. 

Go thy way. — Go is a verb, because it is the word that affirms in the 
command given. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Point out the verbs in the following sentence : — 
The moon rises. The sun sets. The child reads his book. The 

sword kills. The loud thunder peals. The waves dash violently. 
Have you no conscience 1 Eest, sleep, dream, if you can forget the 
past. 

II. Make sentences with the following subjects by in- 
serting verbs in place of the dashes : — 

The waves — The sun — The dog — The rain — 

The day — Camels — The lion — The ships — 

Wild flowers — The stars — My head — The wind — 

Heavy showers — School — Bad men — The teacher — 



86 GENERAL CLASSES OP VERBS. 



SECTION I. 
General Classes of Verbs. 

152. Verbs are divided into two general classes, 
Transitive and Intransitive. 

Transitive Verbs, 

153. A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object 
to complete the sense ; as, " Fire consumes " (what ?) ; an 
object is required to complete the sense, and therefore 
consumes is a transitive verb. 

The object of a transitive verb is generally a noun or pronoun in the 
objective case, used immediately after the verb, without a preposition ex- 
pressed or understood. 

The object of a transitive word is sometimes omitted, when it is sug- 
gested by the connection; as, " The husbandman ploughs^ sows, and reaps. 
The object of each of these verbs is naturally suggested," — "ploughs the 
ground, sows the seed, and reaps the grain," 

EXERCISE. 

Complete the following sentences by inserting transi- 
tive verbs in place of the dashes : — 

Subjects. Objects. Subjects. Objects. Subjects. Objects. 

George play. Trees fruit. Children books. 

Water thirst. Food — ; — hunger. Eyes light. 

Teeth food. Diamond glass. Water fire. 

They him. Richard me. We ourselves. 

Intransitive Verbs. 

154. An Intransitive Verb is one that does not re- 
quire an object to complete the sense; as, I stand; he 
sits. 

Inti'ansitive verbs often express an action in the strongest manner; 
but the application of the action to an object is denoted, not by the verb, 
but by of, at, on, upon, or some other preposition, introduced after the verb, 
as, " He stamped on the ground " " They /eW upon the enemy." " She 



INTRANSITIVE VEEBS. 87 

Ixmyhs AT her friends." Here the preposition and the verb taken together 
form a compound expression equivalent to a transitive verb ; but the verb, 
taken separately, is intransitive. 

The verb to be generally expresses no attribute of the subject, but 
serves as a cc^la to connect subject and attribute. The verbs to seem, to 
become, to a^ear, to feel (strong), and some others denoting condition, some- 
times have the same office, and are termed copula verbs. 

The copula and attribute taken together form the predicate of a sen- 
tence. Most verbs combine the copula and attribute in themselves; as, he 
runs, i. e. he is running. When the copula verbs denote existence they also 
combine in themselves copula and attribute; as, it appears so. This is 
likewise the case with the simple copula be, when it is introduced by the 
abverb there ; as, There loas a man. 

155. Some intransitive verbs may be followed by an object that has a 
meaning akin to their own; as, '■'■to dream a dream;" "torwre a race;" 
** to liee a life," &c. Here, dream, run, live, may be parsed as intransitive 
verbs used transitively. 

Again, transitive verbs muy be used intransitively. 

„ C Ellen reads her lesson well. 

Transitive. < ^,, .^ . . ^, 

( Lllen writes her exercise neatly, 

Intkansitive. Ellen reads and writes. 

The last sentence is equivalent to *' Ellen is able to read and write." 
No object is here required to complete the sense ; and read and wHie may 
be parsed as transitive verbs used intransitively. 

Some verbs have tw-o significations, in one of which they are transi- 
tive and in the ether intransitive; as, " He acts his part well." (Trans.) 
"The mind acts upon the body." (Intrans.) 

156. It is important to be able to distinguish between transitive and 
intransitive verbs. The following rales will be found useful: — 

1. A verb followed by an object, unless it is one of kindred significa- 
tion, as in 4 155, is transitive. 

2. When a verb is not followed by an object, if it takes me, him, or it 
after it without injuring the sense, it is transitive; if not, intransitive. 
" Fire consumes me ; " this makes sense, and consumes is transitive. "He 
sits me ; " " he sits him; " " he sits it; " — none of these sentences makes 
sense, and sits is intransitive. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences, and 
tell whether they are transitive or intransitive : — 

Children play. Foxes bark. Masters teach. Caesar conquered 
Britain. ^ Pompey fled. Water runs. Air invigorates the body. 



88 TOICE. 

Ice melts. Gold glitters. Kings rule their subjects. I teach. 

They learn rapidly. The Chinese eat rats and puppies. Palmyra 

stood in a wilderness. Many a brave soldier slept the sleep of 
death. 



SECTION II. 
Voice. 

157. Voice is that accident of the verb which shows 
the relation of the subject to the action expressed by the 
verb. 

Transitive verbs have two forms, called the Active 
and the Passive Voice. 

In the Active Voice the subject of the verb is repre- 
sented as acting ; as, " The sun warms the earth." 

In the Passive Voice the subject of the verb is repre- 
sented as being acted upon ; as, " The earth is warmed by 
the sun." 

In these examples the sense is the same, but the form of expression is 
different. Earth, the object in the active form, becomes the subject in the 
passive; while the subject sun appears in the passive form as the object of 
the preposition by. 

158. Most intransitive verbs are found only in the 
active voice. 

Intransitive verbs, as a general rule, have a passive form only when 
they are used transitively. We can say, '* the race is rtm" but not " he 
isruny A few, however, among which are, come, go, arrive, become, rise, 
B,nd fall, have a passive form, authorized by good writers. " 7s Hector arrived 
and gone? " — Shakespeare. " My lord, your loving nephew now is come.'''* 
— Ibid. " The Lord is risen." 

When an intransitive verb becomes transitive by the addition of a 
preposition, the compound term may be used in the passive form; as, "Her 
friends were laughed at.'''' 

Intransitive verbs denoting existence merely have no voice. To this 
class belong the copula verbs to be, to become, &c. 



MODE. 89 

EXEKCISE. 

Preserve the sense of the following sentences, but 
change their form by putting the verb in the passive 
voice, making the object the subject, and introducing the 
subject after the preposition hy as its object. 

Model. — Verb, active. Farmers raise grain. 

Verb, passive. Grain is raised by farmers. 

The hunter kills the fox. The wind shakes the tree. 

The farmer tills the ground. The sun melts the snow. 

The waves toss the ship. Grocers sell sugar. 

Sailors navigate the sea. All love the good man. 



SECTION III. 
Mode . 

159. Mode is that accident of the verb which dis- 
tinguishes the manner of the action or state affirmed. 

160. Examples of the different modes in which the 
verb is used follow. 

1. We say of a flower, it blooms, it bloomed, it has bloomed, it will bloom; 
or, did it bloom ? has it bloomed f &c. This manner of asserting or inquiring 
is called the Indicative mode. 

Note. — Indicative means " showing" or " declaring." 

2. We say, the child may learn, can learn, must learn, could learn, should 
learn ; or, may he learn f can he learn f must he learn ? &c. This manner 
of asserting or inquiring is called the Potential mode. 

Note. — Potential means "having power or ability." 

3. We say, if it rain, lest it rain, unless it rain, &c. This manner of 
representing an action or state is called the Subjunctive mode. ■ 

Note. — Subjunctive means " subjoined to; " and the mode in question 
is so called, because the clause in which it occurs must be " subjoined to " 
or connected with some other clause, to make complete sense. If it rain 
expresses only a supposition; but when subjoined to / will not worJc, the 
sense is complete, — " K it rain, I will not work." 

4. We say, learn thou, obey ye, do go, &c. This manner of speaking is 
called the Impeeative mode. 

Note. — Imperative means " commanding." 



90 THE MODES DEFINED. 

5. We say, to read, to have read, &c. This manner of speaking Is 
called the Infinitive mode. 

Note. — Infinitive means " unlimited." 

EXERCISE. 

I. Point out the verbs in the following expressions, 
and tell their mode : — 

I love. I have loved. I will love. I loved. — To do. To leam. 
To speak. To have seen. — I may move. I might move. I can 
move. I must move. — If I like. Unless you hear. Though he slay 
me. Lest he be angry. — Shun thou. Shun. Shun ye. Obey your 
rulers. 

II. Give an example of each of the five modes with 
each of the following verbs : — 

command deny praise turn 

obey forgive blame walk 

The Modes Defined. 

161. There are five Modes ; the Indicitive, the Po- 
tential, the Subjunctive, the ImiDcrative, and the Infini- 
tive. 

162. The Indicative Mode is used simply to declare 
something ; as, ".Se writes^ 

163. The Potential Mode is used to affirm something 
as permitted, possible, necessary, or obligatory ; as, " He 
may write ; " " he can write ; " " he must icrite / " " he 
should writer 

The potential mode is indicated by the sign may, can, must, might, 
could, would, or should. 

164. Both the indicative and the potential mode are used in asking 
questions ; as, ^'■Does he write ? " [indicative] . '■'■May he torite f " " Can he 
write f " '■'■Must he wHte f " ^^ Should he write f " [potential]. 

165. The Subjunctive Mode is used to affirm some- 
thing as uncertain, conditional, or contingent; as, If I 
were he, I would not go.'* 



THE MODES DEFINED. 91 

The subjunctive mode may generally be known by the sign if^ ihoug\ 
unless, whether, lest, or some word that implies uncertainty or supposition; 
but this word is a conjunction, and forms no part of the verb. 

This sign, however, is often omitted, especially before were, had, could, 
and should; as, " Were I," ^^Ead I the wiags of a dove," for "i/* I were," 
"i/" I had the wings of a dove." 

166. The indicative and the potential are often used instead of the 
subjunctive mode, after the conjunctions above mentioned, to affirm some- 
thing conditionally; as, "If I am not there, wait for me." "If she could 
go, she would be happy." In such a case, the verb may be parsed as in 
ike indicative mode used contingently, or the potential mode used contingently. 

167. The Imperative Mode is used to commarid, en- 
treat, exhort, or permit; as, "O^ey at once." "O come,^^ 
''Do your duty." ''Go, this time." 

The imperative mode may generally be known by having its subject 
tmderstood; as in all the above examples, where thou or you is understood 
for the subject. If the subject is expressed, it always stands after the verb, 
if the latter consists of but a single word ; as, Go thou, obey ye. 

168. The Infinitive Mode is used to express an action, 
or state, in an unlimited manner ; as, to live, to know, to 
have known. 

The infinitive mode may be known by the sign to, which is generally 
used to introduce it. 

169. The infinitive may generally be considered as a verbal noun in 
the nominative or the objective case; as, "To travel [that is, travelling] is 
pleasant." " Boys should love to read [that is, should love reading']." 

170. A verb in any other mode than the Infinitive is 
said to be Finite. 

EXEECISE. 

Point out the verbs in the following sentences ; state 
whether they are transitive or intransitive ; mention their 
voice and mode. 

The sun warms the earth. James should love his book. I will 
walk in the field. You must not kill the bird. If sinners entice thee, 
consent thou not. Love justice. Speak the truth. He wished he 
could learn. He might learn if he would. I must go. Suppose it 
should rain. If it should rain, I shall not go. He should strive to 
improve. Go and do likewise. Seek peace and enjoy it. Does he 
believe the rumor'? Must I go '? How could Gain kill Abel 'i 



TENSE. 



SECTION IV. 
Tense. 

171. Tense is that accident of the verb which distin 
guishes the time of the action or state affirmed. 

172. Examples of the different tenses in which the 
verb is used follow. 

1. We say, The flowers hloom. Here, the act of blooming is repre- 
sented as going on at the present time, and the verb is said to be in the 
Present tense. 

2. We say. The flowers were blooming. Here, the blooming is repre- 
sented as going on at some past time, and not completed; the verb were 
blooming is said to be in the Imperfect tense. 

3. We say, The flowers have bloomed. Here, the blooming is repre- 
sented as completed at the present time, and the verb have bloomed is said 
to be in the Perfect tense. 

4. We say. The flowers had bloomed before I arrived. Here, the 
blooming is represented as having been completed in past time before some 
other act which is itself past. The vei'b had bloomed is said to be in the 
Plup:^rfect tense. 

5. We say, The flowers will bloom. Here, the blooming is represented 
as about to take place at some future time, and the verb is said to be in the 
FiKST Future tense. 

6. We say. The flowers vnll have bloomed before I arrive. Here, the 
blooming is represented as about to be completed before some other future 
act, and the verb is said to be in the Second Future tense. 

173. There are six Tenses : the Present, which de- 
notes present time ; the Imperfect, Perfect, and Pluper- 
fect, which denote past time ; and the First and Second 
Future, which denote future time. 

174. Verbs have two forms in each tense of the active voice, the 
Simple and the Progressive. The Simple form is the shorter of the two, 
and is the one more frequently used. The Progressive form denotes an 
action in progress at the time indicated. 

Simple. Progressive. 

Present. I write. I am writing. 

Imperfect. I wrote. I was writing. 

Perfect. I have written. I have been writing. 



TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 93 

EXERCISE. 

I. Point out the verbs in- the following expressions, 
and tell their tense : — 

I will speak. I am walking. You screamed. Did you scream 1 
Have you screamed ? They had gone. They will have arrived. 
They were riding. They rode. I have finished. Thou hast erred. 
How she blushed ! What a sight it was ! Men and women stare, 
cry out, and run. 

II. Give an example of each of the six tenses with 
each of the following verbs : — 

kill move destroy scold 

heat burn permit enter 

speU mend depart paint 

Tenses of the Indicative Mode. 

The Present Tense. 

175. The Present Tense denotes present time ; as, " I 
write.''^ " I am writing P 

The simple form expresses what is customary or always true; as, " The 
sun rises and sets.'''' " God is eternal." 

It embraces any extent of time, a portion of which is included in the 
present; as, Caligula is justly abhorred for his cruelty," — that is, was and 
still is abhorred. 

The simple form of the present tense is sometimes used in the narra- 
tion of past events to impart vivacity to the style; as, " "Re fights, conquers, 
and talces an immense booty, which he divides among his soldiers, and re- 
turns home." 

This form sometimes refers to future time also, especially when pre- 
ceded by the words when, bejw^e, after, as soon as, &c. ; as, " When he 
arrives, he will hear the news." " Mr. Colman goes to Boston to-morrow." 

The Imperfect Tense. 

176. The Imperfect Tense denotes past time simply; 
as, " I wrote.^^ " I loas writing.''^ 

The simple form of the imperfect expresses an action or state as com- 
pleted in past time ; as, " The ship sailed yesterday." 

It also expresses what was habitual in past times ;' as, " Humboldt 
rose at four in the morning [that is, was in the haUt of rising'].''^ 



94 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 

The Peefect Tense. 

177. The Perfect Tense denotes past time with some 
reference to the present ; as, " I ham written^ " I h(m6 
been writing^ 

The signs of this tense are ^ctre, hast^ has. 

Th% simple form of this tense expresses an action or state that took 
place at any period of past time, together with the idea of continuance to 
the present ; as, " Philosophers have made great discoveries in the present 
century." Here, the action spoken of is past, but the idea of continuance 
to the present time is implied. 

If there is no reference to present time, either in the act itself or its 
consequences, the perfect should not be used. It would be wrong to say, 
" Philosophers have made great discoveries in the seventeenth century." 

This form expresses also an action or event as just finished ; as, " I 
have spoken freely what I had to say." 

The simple form of the perfect, preceded by when, before, as soon asj 
&c., sometimes denotes future time; as, " We will go as soon as we have 
completed our work." 

The Pluperfect Tense. 

178. The Pluperfect Tense denotes time past at or 
before some other specified past time ; as, " I had written,^* 
" I had been writing^ " I had finished my letter before 
he arrived." 

The signs of this tense are had, hadst. 

The pluperfect bears the same relation to the imperfect that the perfect 
docs to the present. 

The First Future Tense. 

179. The First Future Tense denotes future time sim- 
ply ; as, " I shall v^riteP " I shall be writing^ 

The signs of this tense are shall, shall, vuill, wilt. 
The Second Future Tense. 

180. The Second Future Tense denotes time that 
will be past at or before some future time specified ; as, 
" I shall have written.'''' " I shall have been writing^ 
" They will have finished their work by the appointed 
time." 

The signs of this tense are shall have, shall have, mil have, wilt havo. 



TENSES OP THE POTENTIAL MODE. 95 

Tenses of the Potential Mode. 

181. Only four of the six tenses appear in the Po- 
tential Mode ; the Present, Imperfect, Perfect, and 
Pluperfect. 

Signs. — The signs of the Present Potential are may, jan, must. 

Imperfect Potential, might, could, would, should. 

Perfect Potential, may have, can have, must have. 

Pluperfect Potential, might have, could have, would have, should have. 

182. The tenses of the Potential Mode do not denote 
the same distinctions of time as the corresponding tenses 
of the Indicative. 

183. The Present Potential implies permission, ability, 
or necessity. It refers to either present or fut re time, 
according to the modifying words with which it is accom- 
panied; as. 

Present. Future. 

Permission. You may go now. You may go to-morrow. 

Ability. I can go now. I can go to-morrow. 

Necessity. He 7nust go now. He must go to-morrow. 

184. The Imperfect Potential implies permission, abil- 
ity, determination, or obligation, with reference either to 
past, present, or future time ; as. 

Permission — past. Last week he said I might go yesterday. 
Ability — past. I could not go last year. 

Determination — present. I would go now, if it were possible. 
Obligation — future. You should by all means return next week. 

185. The Perfect Potential imjolies the present possi- 
bility or necessity of an action or state's having taken 
place at some past time ; as, 

She may have returned ; meaning. It is possible that she has retunied. 
She can not have returned ; " It is not possible that she has returned. 

She must have returned ; " It must be that she has returned. 

186. The Pluperfect Potential imphes past possi- 
bility, determination, or obhgation, with respect to an 



96 TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

action or state's having taken place at some past time ; 
as, 

She might have returned; meaning. It was possible for her to have returned. 
She could have returned; " It was possible for her to have returned. 
She would have returned; " It was hej determination to have returned. 
She should have returned; " It was her duty to have returned. 

Tenses of the Subjunctive Mode. 

187. Only two of the six tenses appear in the Sub- 
junctive Mode ; the Present and the Imperfect. 

As before remarked, the various tenses of the Indicative and the Po- 
tential are often used subjunctively. 

188. The Present Subjunctive generally expresses a 
condition on which something future depends ; as, " If I 
justify myself, mine own mouth shall condemn me." " If 
I he wicked, woe unto me ! " 

The Imperfect Subjunctive expresses a present sup- 
position in connection with which something present or 
future is asserted ; as, " If I were he, I would return [either 
immediately or at some future time]." 

This tense also implies that the opposite of the supposition is the case. 
If used in an affirmative clause, it implies a negation; as, "If he wert 
industrious, he would succeed [implying that he is not industrious]." If 
used in a negative clause, it implies an affirmation; as, *' If he were not 
industrious, he would not succeed [implying that he is industrious]." 

Tense of the Imperative Mode. 

189. A command can be given only at the present 
time, and therefore the Imperative Mode has but one 
tense, the Present. 

Tenses of the Infinitive Mode. 

190. The Infinitive Mode has two tenses, the Present 
and the Perfect ; as, to write^ to have written. 



PARTICIPLES. 97 

191. The Present Infinitive expresses an uncompleted 
action or state in an unlimited manner, with reference 
either to past, present, or future time ; as, 

Past. — I wished to write last week. 

Present. — I wish to lorite now. 

Future. — I intend to write next week. 

The Perfect Infinitive expresses a completed action or 
state in an unlimited manner ; as, " Metius is thought to 
have invented the telescope." 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the veihs in the following sentences ; state 
whether they are transitive or intransitive; mention their 
voice, mode, and tense. 

Venus is a planet. I am reading history. Cortez invaded Mexico 
before Pizarro had overrun Peru. Many have tried in vain to discover 
the philosopher's stone. If it is I you mean, produce your proof. 
When the sky falls, we shall catch larks. Napoleon would have given 
much to have been on the field himself. If I were sure he would come, 
I would remain. He will have failed before the steamer can arrive. 
You may have heard this. We have been trying to catch fish. 



SECTION V. 
Participles. 

192. A Participle is a word that partakes of the 
properties of a verb and an adjective ; as, '-'- Hearing the 
music, he returned." 

Hearing is a participle. It partakes of the properties of the verb Jiear^ 
in that it implies action. It partakes of the properties of an adjective, in 
that it is joined to the pronoun fee to qualify it. 

193. An intransitive verb has three participles, known 

as the Present, the Perfect, and the Compound. The 

three participles of the verb rove are roving., roved., having 

roved. 

7 



98 PARTICIPLES. 

194. The Present Participle ends in ing^ and impliet* 
an action or state going on and not completed; as, rov- 
ing, turning, being. 

The present participle implies time present, in relation to the action 
or state denoted by the leading verb of the sentence. Thus, absolutely, it 
may imply either past, present, or future time. Seeing me, you trembled ; 
Seeing me, you tremble; Seeing me, you vnll tremble. Here the seeing is 
present relatively to the trembling ; but, absolutely, it is past, present, or 
future, according to the tense of the verb tremble. 

195. The present participle of a transitive verb, though generally active 
in its signification, is sometimes used passively ; as, " The book is printing 
[equivalent to the book is being printed]." 

196. The present participle must be distinguished from a verbal noun 
having the same form. " While reading, he fainted." " I am fond of 
reading.''^ In the former sentence, reading is a present participle, because 
it implies an action, and describes the pronoun he. In the latter sentence, 
it is the name of something, and is a novm. 

197. The Perfect Participle generally (though not 
always) ends in ed, and implies an action or state com- 
pleted ; as, roved, turned, been. 

This participle is never used by itself, but enters vito many compound 
forms of the verb ; as, have loved, had loved. 

198. The Compound Participle is formed by combin- 
ing the participle having with the perfect participle, and 
implies an action or state completed before the com- 
mencement of some other action or state; as, haviiig 
roved., having turned, having been. 

199. A transitive verb has six participles : the three 
mentioned above, which are then distinguished as the 
Present Participle Active, the Perfect Participle Active, 
and the Compound Participle Active ; and three corre- 
sponding to them in the passive voice. 

The Present Participle Passive of the verb hved is being loved. Th« 
Perfect Participle Passive is loved; as, '^Loved by his friends, he lived hap- 
pily." The Compound Participle Passive is having been loved. 



RBGULAB AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 99 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nonns, 
pronouns, and adjectives they contain. Point out the 
participles, and give the name of each. 

Drawing a line on the sand, and eying the men arrayed before him, 
Pizarro thus addressed them. Expelled by the Greeks, I came to Italy, 
beheving I should there find safety. Being thus led on, Hastings 
joined the conspiracy. Having once been deceived, the king was 
exceedingly cautious. The horse, having fallen in leaping the ditch, 
was afraid to approach the place again. 

Trembling, hoping, hngering, flying, — 
O the pain, the bliss of dying ! 



SECTION VI. 
Regular and Ieeegular Verbs. 

200. A Regular Verb is one that forms its imperfect 
indicative and perfect participle by adding ed to the 
present, or d when the present ends in silent e ; as. 

Indie. Present. Indie. Imperfect. Perfect Participle, 

Arrive, arrived, arrived. 

Conceal, concealed, concealed. 

Perform, performed, performed. 

201. Regular verbs ending in y preceded by any other letter than a, e, 
or o, change y into i before ed; as, 

Cry, cried, cried. Deny, denied denied. 

But Pray, prayed, prayed. Prey, preyed, preyed. 

Toy, toyed, toyed. Enjoy, enjoyed, enjoyed. 

202. Certam regular verbs double their final letter before the termina- 
tion ed; as, fit, fitted; plan, plan7^ed; regret, regretted; drop, dropped. 

203. An Irregular Verb is one that does not form its 
imperfect indicative and perfect participle by adding ed 
to the present, or d when the present ends in silent e; as, 

Indie. Present. Indie. Imperfect. Perfect Participle. 
Know, knew, known. 

Stand, stood, stood. 

Go, went, gone. 



100 PERSON AND NUMBER OF THE \rERB. 

204. To find whether a verb is regular or irregular, add d or ed to the 
present, and see whether that forms the imperfect tense and perfect parti- 
ciple. If it does, the verb is regular; if not, irregular. — Is the verb brinff 
regular or irregular ? Add ed, — bringed. There is no such word ; there- 
fore bring is irregular. — Is move regular or irregular? Add c?, — moved. 
This is both the imperfect tense and the perfect participle; therefore move 
is regular. 

Are the following verbs regular or irregular? — Open; fatigue; set; 
prove ; have ; regret ; transfer ; plan ; lend; sit ; create ; command; com« ; 
complain; relate; rest; lose; deceive; improve; make. 



SECTION VII. 
Person and Number of the Verb. 

205. Besides voice, mood, and tense, the verb has two 
other accidents, — Person and Number. 

206. Verbs, like nouns and pronouns, have three persons and two num- 
bers. The 1st person singular affirms something of one person speaking; 
the 2d, of one person spoken to ; the 3d, of one person or thing spoken of. 
The 1st person plural affirms something of more than one person speaking; 
the 2d, of more than one person spoken to ; the 3d, of more than one person 
or thing spoken of. 

207. A verb has the same person and number as its 
subject ; and sometimes, in undergoing a change in person 
and number, it also undergoes a change of form ; as, 

1st Person. 2d Person. Sd Person. 

Sing. I love. Thou lovest, He loves ; 

Plur. We love, You love. They love. 

It will be seen that st is added to form the second perSon; and «, to 
form the third. 

208. /, the pronoun of the first person (or a relative referring to it), is 
the only word that can be the subject of a verb in the first, singular; tkou^ 
of a verb in the second, singular. We (or a relative standing for it) is al- 
ways the subject of the first, plural, and you or ye of the second, plural A 
verb in the third person may have any noun or any pronoun of the third 
person for its subject. In going over the parts of a verb, the pronouns 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 101 

are given with them to distinguish the different persons and numbers; but 
it must be remembered that they form no part of the verb. 

209. The second person singular of the verb (as, thou lovest) is not 
much used except in solemn style. The second plural {you love) takes its 
place, being used both when one person and more than one are spoken to. 

210. The imperative mode is commonly used only in the second per- 
son; as, come thou ; go ye. 

In poetry, however, and in certain forms, we sometimes find both the 
first and the third person used in the imperative mode ; as, 
1st person. — Well, march we on. 

Meet we the medicine of the sickly weal. — Shakespeare. 
Zd person. — Be it enacted. 
Blessed be he that cometh. Fall he that must. 

211. The infinitive mode and the participles have no person or 
number. 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the verbs ; tell whether they are regular 
or irregular, transitive or intransitive; state the voice, 
mode, tense, person, and number of each. 

They labor. They labored. I have labored. I shall labor. He 
will labor. It moves. It moved. It will move. We know. We 
knew. We shall know. We have known. The bees sting. The 
bees stung. The bees will sting. The bees may sting. They can 
sting. They might sting. You have. You had. You have had. 
You will have. You might have. You may have. To sting. To 
ave. To have had. To have stung. 



SECTION VIII. 

AUXILIAKT VeKBS. 

212. Conjugation is the inflection of a verb in its 
different voices, modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

213. A verb is conjugated briefly by mentioning its three principal 
parts, the Present Indicative, Imperfect Indicative, and Perfect Partici- 
ple; as. 

Present Indicative, loie; Imperfect Indicative, loved -jVer feet Participle, loved. 
Present Indicative, draw, Imperfect Indicative, drew ; Perfect Participle drawn. 



102 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 



214. From the parts of the verb that have been given as illustrations, 
it must have been observed that some of the tenses consist of but a single 
word, and others of several words. The former are called Simple tenses, 
the latter Compound. " I fore," the present indicative, is simple; " I may 
love,'' the present potential, is compound. 

The compound tenses are formed by combining with the principal verb 
certain short words called Auxiliary Verbs. Auxiliary means helping. 

The auxiliary is often separated from the principal verb by one or 
more intervening words; as, " The accused will certainly be convicted.'" 

215. Auxiliary verbs are such as help to form the 
modes aud tenses of other verbs. 

The auxiliaries are do^ he^ have^ will, shall, may^ 
can^ and must. 

216. Do, be, have, and wiU are also principal verbs, and, used as such, 
must be distinguished from the auxiliaries. "Do this for my sake;" do 
is a principal verb. "Do come;" do helps to form a compound tense of 
the verb come, and is an auxiliary. 

217. Instead of the compound tense of a verb, its auxiliary alone is 
Bometimes used, to avoid repetition ; as, "I shall come; but, if I cto not, 
remember me [that is, if I cfo not cor/ie]." — " ' Will you come? ' ' I wiU 
[come.] ' " 

218. Be is used as an auxiliary in all its parts ; the other auxiliaries 
are for the most part used in the present and imperfect, and those tenses 
only. Be and have are conjugated at length hereafter; the parts of the 
remaining auxiliaries are given below. 





219. 


Conjugation of the Auxiliaries. 






Singular. 




Plural. 






1st per. 


2d per. 


3d per. 


1st per. 


2d per. 


3d per. 




/ 


Thou 


He 


We 


You 


They 


Pres. 


— Do dost 


dost 


does 


do 


do 


do 


Imp. 


— Did didst 


didst 


did 


did 


did 


did 


Pres. 


— Will 


will 


will 


will 


will 


will 


Imp. 


— Would 


wouldst 


would 


would 


would 


would 


Pres. 


— Shall 


Shalt 


shall 


shall 


shall 


shall 


Imp. 


— Should 


shouldst 


should 


should 


should 


should 


Pres. 


— May 


mayst 


may 


may 


may 


may 


Imp. 


— Might 


mightst 


might 


might 


might 


might 


Pres. 


— Can 


canst 


can 


can 


can 


can 


Imp. 


— Could 


couldst 


could 


could 


could 


could 


Pres. 


— Must 


must 


must 


must 


must 


must 



REMARKS ON THE AUXILIARIES. 103 

Remarks on the Auxiliaries. 

DO, DID. 

220. Do is a sign of the present indicative or tlie 
present imperative ; did^ of the imperfect indicative. 
They are used, — 

1. In negative and interrogative sentences; as, " I cfo not see." "I 
<S<Z not see." " Do you see ? " " Did you see ?" 

2. In emphatic expressions ; as, " ' You do not love me.' * I do love 
you with all my heart.' " — " ' You did not smile.' ' I did.'' " 

3. Expletively ; that is, without any special force ; as, " Expletives 
their feeble aid do join." 

In the imperative mode, do is used to express an urgent command, 
entreaty, or exhortation; as, ^'' Do help me." " Make haste, cZo." 

SHALL, WILL, SHOULD, WOULD. 

221. 8haU and wiU are signs of the first future 
tense. In the different persons they express different 
shades of meaning, as set forth below. 

Shall in the first person, in declarative sentences, announces or 
declares what will take* place, or expresses the decision of the speaker in 
reference to some future action or state; as, "I shall go to-morrow." 
Sometimes it is used in these senses contingently ; as, " I sliall go to-mor- 
row, if the weather permit." 

BJiall in the second and the third person generally expresses the will, 
decision, promise, or command of the speaker in reference to some other 
person or thing; as, "He shall go [it is mytCTTZthat he go]." "Then 
fi/ifl?? ye return, saith the Lord of hosts \^romise\.'''' " Thou s^aZ< not kill 
[t'ommflncf]." 

Sihall in all the persons denotes futurity simply after if and some 
other words that express a condition ; as, " If I, we, you, or he sliall go." 

In questions, shall in the first person implies simple futurity; as, 
^^ Shall 1 reach the boat in season? " It also askj the advice or direction 
of the person addressed; as, '■'■Shall I go?" " Shall I sufier such injus- 
tice ? " " What shall I do ? " " Whither shall I fly ? " 

Will in the first person, in declarative sentences, expresses the deter- 
mination of the speaker with respect to his ot\ti action or state ; as, " I 
icUl go." " I will be [that is, it is my determination to be] happy." 

Will in the second and third person generally denotes futurity simply; 
as, " He 2^7/ not go to-morrow." Sometimes, howevei', it implies strong 



104 REMARKS ON THE AUXILIARIES. 

determination on the part of the subject; as, " Why wn7Zye die?'* "Hi 
wUl not listen [that is, he is determined not to listen]." 

The diflference between shall and vdll in declarative sentences may be 
summed up as follows: — 

Shall in the first person, and mil in the second and third, imply simple 
futurity. 

Will m the first person, and shall in the second and third, imply deter- 
mination. 

Simple Future. 
I shall, thou wilt, he will 

We shall, ye will, they wDl. 

Future of Determination. 
I will, thou shalt, he shall ; 

We will, ye shall, they shall. 

Will is also used without any reference to future time, to express what 
is customary; as, " She ivill lie beneath the trees for hours at a time.*' 

222. Should and would are signs of the imperfect 
potential. 

Should in all the persons commonly expresses obligation ; as, *' We 
[you or they] should do right." 

After if though, unless, and some other conjunctions, should expresses 
future contingency ; as, " If it should happen." '' Though all should deny 
thee." 

Would implies will, desire, or determination, under a condition or 
gitpposUion; as, " I would if I could." " I could if I would.''* 

It is also used to express simply a future event or state under a con- 
dition or supposition ; as, " He would be censured, if he should remain 
longer." 

Would sometimes expresses what was customary in past time; as, 
" She woiUd talk of these scenes by the hour." 

MAY, CAN, MUST, MIGHT, COULD. 

223. May, can, and must are the signs of the pres- 
ent potential. 

224. May implies, — 

1. Possibility ; as, " Something may happen to defeat our plans." 

2. Liberty, or permission ; as, " A man may do what the laws permit." 
" Thow maysi be no longer steward." " He may go, if he wishes." 

8. Wish, when placed before the subject ; as, " Jifa^ prosperity attend 
you.'* 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE. 105 

The expressions may be, it may be, are equivalent to perhaps, or by 
chance; as, " May be I will go [that is, perhaps I will go]." 

225. Cam implies ability. " Can faith save him [is it able to save 
him] ? " " An astronomer can [is able to] calculate an eclipse." 

226. Must implies necessity, certainty, or obligation, and undergoes no 
variation to express time, person, or number. 

227. Might and could are signs of the imperfect 
potential. 

Might is the imperfect of may ; like may, it implies possibility, liberty, 
or wish, and is sometimes used in place of it; as, " that Ishmael might 
live before thee ! " 

Could is the imperfect of can, and like it implies ability, particularly 
with reference to past time; as, " He could not come." 

EXERCISE. 

Select the auxiliaries. Parse the verbs as before 
directed, being careful in parsing never to separate an 
auxiliary from the rest of the verbal form. 

I have moved. They had called. We shall move. I will write. 
They have elected. He has read. They will come. They will have 
learned. I may go. May he go '? Can he go ? He must go. They 
cannot go. They might go. They could succeed. They would learn, 
if they would try. They must have been informed. I did not know. 
You might have known. 



SECTION IX. 
Conjugation of the Verb Havjb 

228. Have is an irregular transitive verb. As a 
principal verb, it is complete. As an auxiliary, it is 
used only in certain parts. It is conjugated as fol- 
lows : — 

Wb^-n a tense has more than one sign, it should be inflected with 
each. 

PEINCIPAL PAKTS. 

Present Ind. Imperf. Ind. Perfect Part, 

Have, Had, Had. 



106 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB HAVE, 

INDICATIVE MODB. 

Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

'l. 1 have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You* have, 

[ 3. He has, 3. They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

3. He had, 3. They had. 

Perfect Tense. 
Sign, —have. 

1. I have had, 1. We have had, 

2. Thou hast had, 2. You have had, 

3. He has had, 3. They have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Sign y— had. 

1. I had had, 1. We had had, 

2. Thou hadst had, 2. You had had, 

3. He had had, 3. They had had. 

First Future Tense. 
Signs, — shall, will. 

1. I shall or will have, 1. We shall or will have, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have, 2. You shall or will have, 

3. He shall or will have, 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future Tense. 
Signs, — sJiall have, will have. 

1 . I shall or will have havl, 1 . We shall or will have had, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have had, 2. You shall or will have had, 

3. He shall or will have had, 3. They shall or Avill have had. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Signs, — may, can, must. 

1. I may have, 1. We may have, 

2. Thou mayst have, 2. You may have, 

3. He may have, 3. They may have. 

* Ye and you require the same form of the verb. As you is the com- 
moD form, ye is not used in the conjugation. 



CONJUGATION OP THE VEEB HAVE, 107 

Imperfect Tense. 

Signs, — might, could, would, should. 

Singular. « Plural. 

1. I might have, 1. We might have, 

2. Thou mightst have, 2. You might have, 

3. He might have, 3. They might have. 

Perfect Tense. 
Signs, — may have, can have, must have. 

1. I may have had, 1. We may have had, 

2. Thou mayst have had, 2. You may have had, 

3. He may have had, 3. They may have had. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Signs, — might, could, would, or should have. 

1. I might have had, 1. We might have had, 

2. Thou mightst have had, 2. You might have had, 
3 He might have had, 3. They might have had. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I have, 1. K we have, 

2. If thou have, 2. If you have, 

3. If he have, 3. If they have. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. If I had, 1. If we had, 

2. If thou had, 2. If you had, 

3. If he had, 3. If they had. 

IMPEEATIVE MODE. 

2. Have thou, 2. Have you. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To have. Perfect, To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Having, Perfect, Had. Compound, Having had> 



108 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE, 



SECTION X. 

Conjugation op the Verb Ba. 

229. Be is an irregular intransitive verb. It is conju- 
gated as follows : — 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 



Present Ind. 


Imperf. Ind. Perfect Participle, 


Axa.f 


Was, Been. 




INDICATIVE MODE. 




Present Tense. 


Singular, 


Plural, 


1. I am. 


1. We are, 


2. Thoaart, 


2. You are. 


3. He is, 


3. They are. 




Imperfect Tense. 


1. I was. 


1. We were, 


2. Thou wast. 


2. You were. 


3. He was. 


3. They were. 




Perfect Tense. 


1. I have been. 


1. We have been. 


2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been. 


3. He has been, 


3. They have been. 




Pluperfect Tense 


1. I had been, 


1. We had been. 


2. Thou hadst been, 2. Tou had been. 


3. He had been, 


3. They had been. 




First Future Tense. 



1. I shall or will be, 1. We shall or will be, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be, 2. You shall or will be, 

3. He shall or will be, 3. They shall or will be. 

Second Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have been, 2. You shall or will have been, 

3. He shall or will have been, 3. They shall or will have been. 



i 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB BE. 109 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense 

Signs, — may, can, must. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. "We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be, 3. They may be. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Signs, — might, could, would, should. 

1. I might be, 1. "We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be, 3. They might be. 

Perfect Tense. 
Signs, — may have, can have, must have. 

1. I may have been, 1. "We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been, 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Signs, — might, could, would, should have. 

1. I might have been, 1. "We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been, 3. They might have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be, 3. If they be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. If I were or were I, 1. If we were or were we, 

2. If thou wert or wert thou,* 2. If you were or were you, 

3. If he were or were he, 3. If they were or were they. 

IMPEKATIVE MODE. 

2. Be thou, 2. Be you. 

* If thou were or were tkou is also used. 



110 EXERCISE ON THE VERBS BE AND HAVE, 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be. Perfect, To have been. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present, Being. Perfect, Been. Compound, Having been. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Give the first person singular of each tense of the 
verb have, in order, naming the tense with each ; as, 

Indicative Mode. — Present^ I have; Imperfect^ I had; Perftct, I 
have had; Pluperfect, I had had, &c. 

Give the first plural of each tense in the same way. 
Give the second singular of each tense of the verb be. 
Give the second plural of each tense. 

II. Parse the following words : — 

I have had. I had been. I shall be. I shall have been. I can 
be. He may have. He may be. May he be ? May he have ? We 
must have. . We must be. We may have been. We must have been. 
I might be. I might have. They could have. They should have. 
He would have been. He might have been. You were. You have 
been. You might be. You could be. You should be. They were. 
He was. We are. We have. We have been. They have been. If 
I be. If thou wert. To have. To have had. To have been. Having 
had. Been. Having. 

III. Correct the following sentences : — 

You was. They has been. When was you there? There has 
been men without a single honorable Reeling. There is some sweet 
flowers. We was ten days on our journey. There was men, women, 
and children in the assembly. I be contented. They be robbers. We 
be true men. Was you there 1 

rV. Compose a sentence to contain each of the fol- 
lowing words : — 

Have. Has. Am. Was. Were. Has been. Have been. 
Would be. Shall be. Be. Wert. Might have. Could have. To 
have. To have been. 



CONJUGATION OP THE VERB LOVE, 111 

SECTION XI. 

Conjugation of the Yeeb Lors. 

230. As an example of the conjugation of a tranyitive 
verb in the active and the passive voice, we may take the 
regular transitive verb love. 

Active Voice. 

PKINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present Ind, Jmperf. Ind. Perfect Participle, 

Love, Loved, Loved. 

INDICATITE mode. 

Present Tense, simple form. 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I love, 1. "We love, 

2. Thou lovest, 2. You love, 

3. He loves. 3. They love. 

Present Tense, emphatic form. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 
.3. He does love, 3. They do love. 

Imperfect Tense, simple form. 

1. I loved, 1. "We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved, 3. They loved. 

Imperfect Tense, emphatic form. 

1. I did love, 1. "We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love, 3. They did love. 

Perfect Tense, 

1. I have loved, 1. "We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved, 3. They have loved 



112 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE. 

Pluperfect Tense, 
Singular. Plural, 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved, 3. They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. You shall or will love, 

3. He shall or will love, 3. They shall or will love. 

Second Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved, 2. You shall or will have loved, 

3. He shall or will have loved, 3. They shall or will have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Signs, — may, can, must. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love^ 

2. Thou raayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love, 3. They may love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Signs, — mighty could, would, should. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love, 3. They might love. 

Peifect Tense. 
Signs, — may have, can have, must have. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved, 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
SiG-ss,— might, could, would, or should have. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, • 2. You might have loved, 

3. Hs might have loved, 3. They might have loved. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 113 

SUBJTJNCTIVB MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If jou love, 

3. If he love, 3. If they love. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved, 3. K they loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

2. Love thou, 2. Love yoa. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To love. Perfect, To have loved. 

PAKTICIPLES. 

Present, liOYing. Perfect, Loved. Compound, Having loved. 

Progressive Form. 
231. The Progressive Form of the verb denotes an 
action as begun and in progress, but not completed. 

A verb is conjugated in the progressive form by 
annexing the present participle active to the different 
parts of the verb to be. This form appears in all the 
active tenses. The first persons are given below; in 
reciting, give all the persons, — I am loving^ thou art 
:c. 

Indicative Mode. 

Present. I am lovmg. Pluperfect. I had been loving. 

Imperfect. I was loving. 1st. Future. I shall be loving. 

Perfect. I have been loving. 2d.Fuiure. I shall have been loving. 

Potential Mode. 
Present. I may, can, or must be loving. 

Imperfect. I might, could, would, or should be loving. 
Perfect. I may, can, or must have been loving. 

Pluperfect. I might, could, would, or should have been loving. 
8 



114 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB LOVE. 

Subjunctive Mode. 

Present. If I be loving. Imperfect. If I were loving. 

Imperative Mode. 
2. Be thou loving. Be you loving. 

Infinitive Mode. 
Present. To be loving. Perfect. To have been loving. 

Negative Form. 

232. A verb is conjugated negatively by introducing 
the adverb not., after the verb in the simple tenses, after 
the first auxiliary in the compound tenses, before to in 
the infinitive mode, and before the participles ; as, — 

Ind. Mode. — I love not, do not love, am not loving; I loved not, 
did not love, was not loving; I have not loved; I had not loved; I shall 
or will not love; I shall or will not have loved. 

Pot. Mode. — I may, can, or must not love; I might, could, would, 
or should not love; I may, can, or must not have loved; I might, could, 
would, or should not have loved. 

Sub. Mode. — If I love not, if I do not love; if I loved not, if I did 
not love. 

Imp. Mode. — Love not, do not love. 

Inf. Mode. — Not to love ; not to have loved. 

Participles. — Not loving ; not loved ; not having loved. 

Interrogative Form. 

238. A verb is conjugated interrogatively in the in- 
dicative and the potential mode by placing the subject 
after the verb in the simple tenses, and in the compound 
tenses after the first auxiliary. 

Ind. Mode. — Love I, do I love, am I loving? Loved I, did I love, 
was I loving? Have I loved? Had I loved? Shall or will I love? 
Shall or will I have loved ? 

Pot. Mode. — May, can, or must I love? Might, could, would, or 
should I love? May, can, or must I have loved? Might, could, would, 
or should I have loved? 



PASSIVE VOICE. 115 

Negative Interrogative Form, 

234. A verb is conjugated negatively and interroga- 
tively by introducing the adverb not immediately after 
the subject in each tense of the interrogative form. 

Ind. Mode. — Love I not, do I not love, am I not loving ? Loved I 
not, did I not love, was I not loving? Have I not loved? Had I 
not loved ? Shall or -will I not love ? Shall or will I not have loved ? 

Pot. Mode. — May, can, or must I not love ? Might, could, would, 
or should I not love ? May, can, or must I not have loved ? Might, 
could, wotdd, or should I not have loved ? 

Passive Voice. 

235. A verb is conjugated in the passive voice by 
placing its perfect participle after the various parts of 
the verb to be. 

A progressive form is sometimes used in the present and imperfect 
passive; as, " The house is being builV " The picture was being painted.^* 
Instead of these constructions, most grammarians and good writers prefer 
the progressive form of the active voice, assigning it a passive significa- 
tion; as, " The house is building." " The picture was painting y 

INDICATITB MODE. 

Present Tense, simple form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved, 3. They are loved. 

Present Tense, progressive form. 

1. I am being loved, 1. "We are being loved, 

2. Thou art being loved, 2. You are being loved, 
8. He is being loved, 3. They are being loved. 

Imperfect Tense, simple form. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved, 3. They were loved 

Imperfect Tense, progressive form. 

1. I was being loved, 1. We were being loved, 

2. Thou wast being loved, 2. You were being loved, 
8. He was being loved, 8. They were being loved. 



116 PASSIVE VOICE OF THE VERB LOVE. 

Perfect Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved, 3. They have been loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved, 3. They had been loved. 

First Future Tense. 

1. I shall or will be loved, 1. We shall or will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt or wilt be loved, 2. You shall or will be loved, 

3. He shall or will be loved, 3. They shall or will be loved. 

Second Future Tense. 
Signs, — shall have, will have, 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou shalt have been loved, 2. You shall have been loved, 

3. He shall have been loved, ^. They shall have been loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Signs, — may, can^ must. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved, 3. They may be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Signs, — might, could, xoould, should. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou raightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved, 3. They might be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
Signs, — may have, can have, must have. 

1 . I may have been loved, 1 . AVe may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved, 3. They may have been loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE OF THE VERB LOVE. 117 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Sign, — might, could, would, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved, 3. They might have been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

- 3. If he be loved, 3. If they be loved. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 
3* If he were loved, 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

2. Be thou loved, 2. Be you loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be loved. Perfect, To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Pres. Being loved. Perf Loved. Comp. Having been loved. 

EXEECISE. 

1. Give the third person singular of each tense of the 
passive voice of the verb love^ in order. 

Give the third person plural of each tense of the pas- 
sive voice. 

Conjugate the verb love negatively in the passive 
voice, giving the first person singular of each tense ; as, I 
am not loved, I was not loved, &c. 

Conjugate love interrogatively in the passive voice, 
giving the second person singular of each tense ; as, Art 
thou loved? Wast thou loved? &c. 



118 FORM FOR PARSING. 

Conjugate love negatively and interrogatively in the 
passive voice, giving the second person singular of 
each tense; as, Art thou not loved? Wast thou not 
loved? &c. 

Syntactical Relations. 

A finite verb is said to agree with its subject when it has the same per- 
son and number; as, He lives. 

A verb in the infinitive is used, — 

1. As a verbal noun in the nominative and objective cases ; as, " To 
ttudy is hard work." 

2. To limit the meaning of the word on which it depends ; as, " He de- 
sires to learnt 

3. With a subject in the objective case; as, "I believe him to be 9X1. 
honest man." 

A partciple is used, — 

1. As an adjective to modify nouns and pronouns; as, "The birds, 
tinging sweetly." 

2. As a noun in the nominative and objective cases ; as, " Cultivating 
the ground is hard work." 

Any form of the verb may be modified by an adverbial element, and, 
i! transitive, may be followed by an object. 

When the object completes the meaning of a verb without the aid of 
any preposition expressed or understood, it is called the direct object ; as, 
" I gave the booh to him." When the prepositions to, for, or from may be 
supplied without injury to the sense, it is called the indirect object ; as, " I 
gave (to) 1dm the book." 

II. Parse the following words. When a verb is in 
the progressive, emphatic, or interrogative form, mention 
it after the voice. 

Form for Parsing. 

Verb. — Transitive or intransitive, principal parts, 
regular or irregular, voice, mode, tense, person, number, 
agreement, rule. 

Parsing Model. — Those men have been selling pigeons. 

Those is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, cannot be compared, 
and belongs to men, according to Rule XVII. (Repeat it.) 

Men is a common noun, third person, plural number, masculine gen- 



FORM FOR PARSING. 119 

der, and nominative case. It is the subject of the verb have been seUing^ 
according to Rule 11. (Repeat it.) 

Eave been selling is a transitive verb. The principal parts are, present 
sell, imperfect sold, perfect participle sold, irregular; active voice, progress- 
sive form, indicative mode, perfect tense, third person, plural number, to 
agree with its subject men, according to Rule V., — A verb agrees loith its 
subject nominative in person and number. 

Pigeons is a common noun, third, plural, masculine or feminine, 
objective, and is the object of the verb Jiave been selling^ according to Rule 
X. (Repeat it.) 

Would Sir Isaac Newton have doubted this ? 

WovM have doubted is a transitive verb. The principal parts are, pres- 
ent doubt, imperfect doubted, perfect participle doubted, regular; active voice, 
interrogative form, potential mode, pluperfect tense, third person, singular 
number, to agree with its subject Sir Isaac NeMon, according to Rule V. 
(Repeat it.) 

Sir Isaajc Newton is a complex proper noun, third person, singular 
number, masculine gender, nominative case, and is the subject of the verb 
would have doubted, according to Rule II. (Repeat it.) 

This is a demonstrative pronominal adjective used as a pronoun, third, 
singular, neuter, objective, and is the object of the verb would have doubted, 
according to Rule X. (Repeat it.) 

I love to study my lesson. 

To study is a transitive verb from the verb to study: principal parts, 
present study, imperfect studied, perfect participle studied. It is a regular 
verb, active voice, infinitive mode, and limits love, according to Rule XIX., 
— A verb in the infinitive generally limits the meaning of a verb, noun, or 
adjective. 

I hear the birds singing. 

Singing is a participle from the verb to sing. The participies are, pres- 
ent singing, perfect sung, compound participle having sung. It is a present 
participle used as an adjective, and belongs to birds, according to Rule XXL, 
—Participles belong to nouns which they limit or modify. 

Writing letters is a profitable exercise. 

Writing is a participle from the verb to write. The participles are, 
present writing, perfect written, compound having written. It is a present 
participle used as a noun, and is the subject of the verb is, according to 
Rule XXII., — Participles used as nouns have the construction of nouns, while 
they are modified in the same way, and govern the same case, as the verbs from 
which they are formed. 



120 lEREGULAE VERBS. 

I have labored. He has proved. He created. They com- 
manded. We have commanded. It will rain. It has rained. The 
children mocked. The soldiers were marching. It was raining. 
We were hoping. The time is approaching. I have been listening. 
Were you listening 1 Was he learning 1 Did he learn ? Do you 
believe? Can you walkl We shall be walking. Shall we walk? 
The world was created. The world has been created. The soldiers 
were commanded. They will be commanded. The work will be 
accomplished. The work might be accomplished. They might 
accomplish the work. I do believe. We do affirm. They did 
maintain. 

I am anxious to go. Hearing him speaTs, I changed my opin- 
ion regarding his merits. He is a man to be loved. I saw him writ- 
ing a letter. He wishes to write a letter. To write letters is profit- 
able. 



SECTION XII. 

Ieeegulak Verbs. 

236. Irregular verbs are easily conjugated when their 
imperfect tense and perfect participle are known, the 
auxiliaries used in the respective tenses being the same 
as in regular verbs, ^ave (§ 228) is an example. 

Some of the most common verbs are irregular. It is important, there- 
fore, to learn the following list : — 

The letter R denotes that, besides the irregular form given, there is a 
regular form in d or ed. In reciting, both forms should be given; as, gildf 
gilt or gilded, gilt or gilded. 

List of Irregular Verbs. 

[Compounds enclosed within parentheses go like the primitives after which they 
are placed. Forms once authorized, but now no longer in good use, are put in italics.] 
Present. Imperfect. -Per/". Part. 

Abide abode abode 

Am was been 

Arise arose arisen 

Awake awoke, b. awoke, b. 



LIST OP IREEGULAR VERBS. 



121 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Per. Part. 


Bear, to bring forth 


bore, bare 


bom 


Bear, to carry 


bore, bare 


borne 


Beat 


beat 


beat, beaten 


Begin 


began 


begun 


Behold 


beheld 


beheld 


Bend 


bent, K. 


bent, R. 


Bereave 


bereft, B. 


bereft, e. 


Beseech 


besought 


besought 


Bet 


bet, E. 


bet, R. 


Bid 


bid, bade 


bid, bidden 


Bind {unbind) 


bound 


bound 


Bite 


bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 


bled 


bled 


Blow 


blew 


blown 


Break 


broke, brake 


broken, brolte 


Breed 


bred 


bred 


Bring 


brought 


brought 


Build {rebuild) 


built, B. 


built, B. 


Burst 


burst 


burst 


Buy 


bought 


bought 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, B. 


caught, s. 


Chide 


chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clove, clave, «. 


cleaved 


Cleave, to split 


cleft, clove 


cleft, cloven, b. 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe {unclothe) 


clad, K. 


clad, R. 


Come {become) 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Crow 


crew, B. 


crowed 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture * 


durst 


dared 


Deal 


dealt, E. 


dealt, B. 


Dig 


dug,ji. 


dug, E. 


Dive 


dove, B. 


dived 


Do {outdOj undo) 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drunk, drank 



Dare, to challenge^ is regular. 



122 



LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Presera. 


Imperfect. 


Peif. Part 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


DreU 


dwelt, B. 


dwelt, B. 


Eat 


ate, eat [pron. e<] 


eaten, eat 


Fall {befaU) 


fell 


faUen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found ' • 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


•Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forbear 


forbore 


forborne 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgol 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get (beget) 


got, gai 


got, gotten 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird (begird) 


girt, R. 


girt, B. 


Give (forgive) 


gave 


given 


Go (undergo) 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung, K. 


hung, B. 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Heave 


hove, B. 


hoven, R. 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, B. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold (wkhhold) 


held 


held, kolden 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Kneel 


knelt, B. 


knelt, B. 


Knit 


knit, B. 


knit, R. 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead (mislead) 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 



LIST OP IRREGULAR VERBS. 



123 



Prts&id. 


ImperfecU 


Perf. Part, 


Lie, to recline ♦ 


lay 


lain 


Light 


lit, E. 


lit, B. 


Lose • 


lost 


lost 


Make [mmake) 


made 


made 


Mean 


meant 


meant 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, B. 


Pay {re-pay) 


paid 


paid 


Prove 


proved 


proven, b. 


Put 


put 


put 


Quit 


quit, R. 


quit, E. 


Eead 


read [pron. red\ 


read [red] 


Rend 


rent 


rent 


Rid 


rid 


rid 


Ride {outride) 


rode 


ridden, rod© 


Ring 


rung, rang 


rung 


Rise 


rose 


risen 


Rive 


rived 


riven, B. 


Run {outrun] 


ran, run 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, B. 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Seethe 


sod, K. 


sodden, B. 


Sell {resell) 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set {beset) 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen, b. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, b. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, b. 


shone, b. 


Shoe 


shod 


shod 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Showt 


showed 


shown, B. 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shrink 


shrunk, shrank 


shrunk, shrunken 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


* Lie, to utter falsehood, is regular. 




t By old writers 


sometimes spelled 


shew, shewed, shewn, b. 



124 



LIST OP IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Present, 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Part 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slaia 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden, slid 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


sunk 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit, B. 


slit, R. 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, B. 


Speak [hespeah) 


spoke, spake 


spoken 


Speed 


sped, K. 


sped, B. 


Spend {mis-spend) 


spent 


spent 


Spin 


spun, span 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


Stand {mihstand) 


stood 


stood 


Stave 


stove, R, 


stove, B. 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stink 


stunk, stank 


stunk 


Stride [bestride) 


strode, strid 


stridden, strid 


Strike 


struck 


struck, stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strow * 


strowed 


strown 


Swear 


swore, stoarQ 


sworn 


Sweat 


sweat, E. 


sweat, B. 


Sweep 


swept 


swept 


Swell 


swelled 


swollen, B. 


Swim 


swam, swum 


swum 


Swing 


swung 


swung 


Take {he-, re-, under-) 


took 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


Tell 


told 


told 



* By old writers sometimes spelled strew, strewed, strewn, i 



EXERCISE ON IRREGULAR VERBS. 



125 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perfect Part. 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve, B. 


thriven, R. 


Throw- 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trod, trodden 


Understaud (twm-) 


understood 


understood 


Wax 


■waxed 


waxen, r. 


Wear (outwear) 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove, R. 


woven, R. 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Wed 


wed, R. 


wed, R. 


Wet 


wet, R. 


wet, R. 


Whet 


whet, B. 


whet, R. 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound, R. 


wound, R. 


Work 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


Wring 


wrung, B. 


wrung, R. 


Write 


wrote 


written 


Note. — Some regul' 


ir verbs in familiar discourse have their imperfect 



.«idicative and perfect participle pronounced as if they ended in instead of 
*?, and we sometimes find them so written ; as, burnt for burned, past for 
passed. As the regular form is much to be preferred, these verbs are not 
inserted in the above list of irregular verbs. 

237. In parsing, irregular verbs, whenever they occur, should be con- 
jugated briefly — that is, their three principal parts should be mentioned 
— immediately after their class is stated. Thus, " We grind; " — grind is 
an irregular transitive verb; grind, grovmd, ground; active voice, indica- 
tive, present, first, plural. 

EXERCISE. 

Correct the irregular verbs in the following sen- 
tences. When the sentences are corrected, analyze them, 
and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs they 
contain. 

The horses drawed the carriage. The timber was drawed a great 
distance. The horses were drove too fast. Does a glutton know 
when he has ate enough ? The birds have flew away. The stream 
has froze over. A stone laid in the street. It has laid there a month. 
The old man has lain down his burden. He lay down his book and 
walked to the door. 



126 DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

They have wrote to-day. The bell has just rang. The meeting 
has began. I begun my work yesterday. She has sang a song. They 
have set there until they are weary. I sat the instrument down at 
your door. The sun sat in a cloud last evening. I saw him setting 
by the wayside. A tree was laying across the street. They done 
their work faithfully. He has mistook the way. His garments are 
nearly wore out. My watch was stole last night. The tempest blowed 
the ship ashore. 

The chaif has blowed away. The building was blowed up. The 
rioters throwed stones. The ball was throwed dexterously. The 
sailor throwed away his money. The leaves were shook from the tree. 
The blossoms have fell to the ground. The leaves are tore out. Have 
you tore your book 1 The letter was so badly wrote that I read it with 
difficulty. We rid a mile. How is the room het ? We dared not go. 
How many things your father has gave you ! I have forborn as long 



SECTION XIII. 
Defective Verbs. 

238. A Defective Verb is one that wants some of its 
parts. The defectives include, — 

1. All the auxiliaries except be. 

2. Ought, found only in the present and the imperfect. "When used 
with the present infinitive of another verb, it is present ; as, " You ought 
to go." When used with the perfect infinitive, it is imperfect; as, "You 
ought to have gone." Had ought or could ought is improper. 

3. Quoth, formerly used as equivalent to say, now obsolete except 
in comic style. It is used only in the present and the imperfect, and does 
not vary in form. Quoth always stands before its subject; as, quoth /, 
guoih he. 

4. Beware (derived from he wary), used chiefly in the imperative and 
the infinitive mode, but occasionally in the first future indicative and the 
imperfect potential. 

5. To wit, " to know," is now used only in the infinitive, in the sens* 
of namely, that is to say. 

6. Wot (meaning know), formerly used in the present and the imper*' 
feet, is now obsolete. 

239. Among the defectives is a class of verbs known as Impersonala. 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 127 

Impersonal Verbs. 

240. An Impersonal Verb is one that is used only in 
the third person singular, and has it for its subject ; as, it 
rains, it hail^, it snows. 

Transitive verbs identical in form with the imperson- 
als, but not to be confounded with them, have all their 
parts comj^lete ; as, " I will rain fire on them." 

Among impersonals are generally classed the anoma- 
lous forms methinks, methouglit, — equivalent to IthinJc^ 
I thought. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. 

INDICATIVE MODE. ' 

Victory perched upon our banner ; our arms triumphed, and the 
enemy suffered severely. We have compared the vast relics of decayed 
and mouldering literature to animal and vegetable remains. He has 
been diligent. He will have gone. It rained hard. Did you see 
the beautiful rainbow after the shower 1 They have resolved, ex- 
amined their hearts, and made new plans. His words of this day are 
planted in my memory, and will there remain till my heart shall beat 
no more. I shall see his face and hear his voice no more. " You sur- 
prise me," quoth my friend. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

It may be expected that I should accompany the resolution with 
some suitable remarks. His intercourse with the living world is ended ; 
and those who would hereafter find him, must seek him in his grave. 
Thou canst do every thing. No thought can be withheld from thee. 
To meet death as becomes a man, is a privilege bestowed on few. I 
. would endeavor to make it mine. We might have succeeded in our 



IMPEKATIVE MODE. 

Incline my heart unto thy testimonies. Keep my commandments 
and live. Bind them upon thy fingers, write them upon the table of 
thy heart. Hear instruction ; be wise and refuse it not. And Reuben 
said unto them, Shed no blood, but cast him into this pit and lay no 
hand on him. Beware of mischief-makers. 



128 



RECAPITULATION. 



INFINITIVE MODE. 

Birds love to sing. The ycuth tries to learn. The man has a 
desire to hear. Learn to obey. He may hope to succeed. It is 
kind to forbear. Methinks it is pleasant to hear the sweet music of 
birds. Ask the hero, ask the statesman whose wisdom you have been 
accustomed to revere, and he will tell you. The rain began to pat- 
ter down in broad and scattered drops. Influenced by a desire to 
stamp on these expressions their merited disgrace, and to preserve dig- 
nity in our deliberations, I felt it my duty to call the gentleman to 
order. We ought to avoid temptation. Caesar ought not to have 
crossed the Rubicon. 



Verbs. 



Forms. 



RECAPITULATION 

TReojular . . . 



' Irregula 



Accidents 

of 

Verbs. 



Uses. 
Voice. 

Mode. 
Tense. 



f Transitive 
( Intransitive . . 
( Active ; as, 
(Passive; as, 

Indicative; as. 
Potential; as, 
Subjunctive ; as, 
Imperative; as, 
Infinitive; as, 

'Present; as. 
Imperfect; as. 
Perfect; as, 
Pluperfect; as. 
First Future ; as. 



. . . . ; as, Love, 

{Piincipal; as. Run. 
Auxiliary; as, Be. 
Defective ; as. Ought. 
Impersonal ; as,Zz5 rai7is. 



. ; as, Write, 
. ; as, Hun. 
He loves. 
He is loved. 

He loves. 
He may love. 
If he love. 
Love thou. 
To love. 

He loves. 
He loved. 
He has loved. 
He had loved. 
He will love. 



Second Future ; as. He will have 
(First; as, I love, t^""^"^ 



Person. -< Second; as, 
(Third; as, 

_ Number, f Singular ; as, 
1 Plural; as, 



Thou lovest. 
He loves. 

He loves. 
They love. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 129 

REVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER V. 

151. What is a verb ? What does the word affirm mean in this defi- 
nition ? Give examples. 

152. Into what classes are verbs divided? 153. What is a transitive 
verb? What is generally the object of a transitive verb? When is it 
omitted ? 154. What is an intransitive verb ? What part of speech used 
with an intransitive verb sometimes makes it transitive ? Name the copula 
verbs. • Of what does the predicate consist? When do the copula verbs 
form the predicate of a sentence ? 155. What may follow an intransitive 
verb as its object? When may a verb be either transitive or intransitive? 
156. How can transitive and intransitive verbs be distinguished ? 

157. How many forms have transitive verbs ? What are they called ? 
How is the subject of a verb represented in the active voice ? In the passive ? 
What is voice ? 158. In what case alone do intransitive verbs have a passive 
form ? What voice have intransitive verbs ? What verbs have no voice ? 

159. What is mode? 160. Give examples of the liflferent modes in 
which the verb is used. What does the word indicative aiean ? Potential ? 
Subjunctive f Imperative? Infinitive? 161. How many modes are there? 
Name them. 162. For what is the indicative mode used? 163. The 
potential ? What are the signs of the potential ? 164. For what are both 
the indicative and the potential used? 165. For what is the subjunctive 
mode used? How may it be known? Before what is the sign if often 
omitted? 166. What modes are often used instead of the subjunctive? 
167. For what is the imperative mode used? How may it generally be 
known? 168. For what is the infinitive mode used? Eiw may it be 
known? 169. What is sometimes the force of the infinitive mode? 
170. When is a verb said to be finite ? 

171. What is tense? 172. Give an example of the present tense. 
The imperfect. The perfect. The pluperfect. The first future. The 
second future. 173. How many tenses are there ? Name them. 174. How 
many forms are there in each tense ? Name and define them. 

175 What does the present tense denote? What does its simple 
form express? Its progressive form? 176. What does the imperfect tense 
denote? What does its simple form express? Its progressive form? 
177. What does the perfect tense denote? What are its signs? What 
does the simple form of the perfect express ? What force has it, when 
preceded by when, before, &c. ? What does the progressive form of the per- 
fect express? 178. What does the pluperfect tense denote? What are its 
signs? 179. What does the first future tense denote? What are its signs? 
180. What does the second future tense denote? What are its signs? 

181. Name the tenses that appear in the potential mode, and give 
their signs. 182. What is said of the tenses of the potential mode, as 
9 



130 REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

compared with those of the indicative? 183. What does the present 
potential imply ? Give examples. 184. What does the imperfect poten- 
tial imply? Give examples. 185. What does the perfect potential im- 
ply? Give examples. 186. What does the pluperfect potential imply? 
Give examples. 187. How many tenses has the subjunctive mode? 
188. What does the present subjunctive express? The imperfect? What 
does the imperfect also imply? 189. How many tenses has the imperative 
mode? 190. How many lias the infinitive mode? 191. What does the 
present infinitive express? The perfect infinitive? 

192. What is a participle? 193. How many participles has an in- 
transitive verb ? Name them. 194. What does the present participle end 
in and imply? 195. How is the present participle sometimes used? 190. 
From what must it be distinguished? 197. What does the perfect parti- 
ciple end in and imply? How is it used? 198. How is the compound 
participle formed? 199. How many participles has a transitive verb? 
Name them. Give examples. 

200. What is a regular verb ? 201. What change is made in regular 
verbs ending in y, before adding edf 202, What other change is made in 
certain regular verbs ? 203. What is an irregular verb ? Give examples. 
204. How do you find whether a verb is regular or irregular? 

205. Besides voice, mode, and tense, what other accidents has the 
verb ? 206. How many persons and numbers have verbs ? What is the 
force of each? 207. What person and number has a verb ? What change 
does the verb sometimes undergo? 208. What must a verb in the first 
person have for its subject? In the second? What may a verb in the 
third person have for its subject? 209. What generally takes the place of 
the second person singular of the verb? 210. What person alone is found 
in the imperative mode ? What exceptions are noted ? 211. What parts 
of the verb have no person or number? 

212. What is conjugation ? 213. How is a verb conjugated briefly ? 
214. What are simple tenses? Compound tenses? How are the com- 
pound tenses formed ? 215. What are auxiliary verbs ? Name the auxil- 
iaries. 216. Which of these are also principal verbs? 217. What is 
sometimes used instead of the compound tense of a verb ? 218. In what 
parts is be used as an auxiliary? In what tenses are the other auxiliaries 
used? 219. Go through the present and imperfect of do; vnll; shall; 
may; can. 

220. Of what are do and did the signs ? Give the three cases in which 
they are used. What is the force of do in the imperative mode? 221. 
Of what are shall and will the signs ? What does shall denote in declara- 
tive sentences in the first person ? In the second and the third person ? 
What does shaU denote after iff In questions? What does wiW denote 



THE ADVERB. 131 

in declarative sentences in the first person ? In the second and the third 
person? Inflect the simple fatnre. Inflect the future of determination. 
What else does will express? 222. Of what are should and would the 
signs? What does should express? What does would express? 223. Of 
what are may, can, and must the signs? 224. What does may imply? 
225. Can t 226. Musi ? 227. Of what are might and could signs ? What 
does might imply? Could f 

228. "What kind of a verb is have ? Conjugate have. 229. What kind 
of a verb is be f Conjugate be. 230. What kind of a verb is hve ? Conju- 
gate the active voice. 231. How is a verb conjugated in the progressive 
form ? Carry the verb love through the various tenses in the progressive 
form. 232. How is a verb conjugated negatively ? Conjugate love nega- 
tively. 233. How is a verb conjugated interrogatively? Conjugate love 
interrogatively. 234. How is a verb conjugated negatively and interroga- 
tively? Conjugate love negatively and interrogatively. 235. How is a 
verb conjugated in the passive voice? In what tenses of the passive voice 
is a progressive form sometimes used ? Go through the passive voice of 
the verb love. When is a verb said to agree with its subject ? How is a 
verb in the infinitive used ? A participle ? How may a verb be modified ? 
What is the direct object? The indirect object? 

238. What is a defective verb ? What whole class of verbs are defect- 
ive ? In what parts is oilght found ? How are the two tenses of ought dis- 
tinguished from each other? In what tenses is qux)th used? How does it 
stand as regards its subject? In what parts is beware used? In what part 
is to vnt used ? What is said of wot f 239. What class of verbs are included 
among defectives ? 240. What is an impersonal verb ? What must not be 
confounded with impersonal verbs ? What anomalous forms are generally 
classed among the impersonals ? 



CHAPTER YI. 

THE ADVERB. 

241. An Adverb is a word joined to a verb, an adjec- 
tive, or another adverb, to modify its meaning. 

" The youth studies diligently; " diligently is joined to the verb studies^ 
to tell how he studies, — that is, to modify its meaning, — and is an adverb. 

'•A very handsome flower; " very is joined to the adjective handsome, 
to teU how handsome the flower is, and is an adverb. 



132 CLASSES OP ADVERBS. 

" He galloped quite fast; " quite is joined to the adverb fastf to tell houf 
fast he galloped, and is an adverb. 

242. Adverbs are apt to be confounded with adjectives, inasmuch as 
they are both modifying words. There is this diiference between them: 
adjectives modify the meaning of nouns or pronouns; adverbs, that of 
verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. " The sun shines pleasantly; " pleas- 
antly modifies the verb shines, and is an adverb. " The sun is pleasant;" 
pleasant modifies the noun sun, and is an adjective. 

243. The meaning of most adverbs can be expressed by a combination 
of other words; as, " He acted wisely [with wisdoni].^^ " She walked rapidly 
[in a rapid manner'].''^ " He stopped here [in this place'].^^ " When [at what 
time] shall I see you? " " They visited me often [many <imes]." " Whence 
[from what place] art thou? " 

244. A combination of words which taken separately 
are unconnected in construction and sense with the rest 
of the sentence, but taken together convey a single idea, 
and modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, or adverb, is 
called an Adverbial Phrase; as, % and by, in vain, by far. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Pick out the ad- 
verbs and adverbial phrases, and tell what words they 
modify. 

The storm rages violently. The sluggard sleeps soundly. The 
birds were singing sweetly. At least, the time was passing pleasantly. 
The hour will soon arrive. The ship did not sail at all. The news 
came to-day. In short, Themistocles could not rest. Friends will 
certainly part. The man will never listen. Perhaps the child will 
recover. Roots grow downward. He lives in vain. We walked 
to and fro. 



SECTION I. 

Classes op Adverbs. 
245. Adverbs are divided, according to their mean- 
ing, into various classes. The principal of these are 
Adverbs of Manner, Time, Place, Direction, Degree, 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 133 

Quantity, Inference, Affirmation, Negation, Order, Ku- 
meral Adverbs, and Interrogative Adverbs. 

246. Adverbs of Manner answer the question how. 

How did he conduct himself? Answer, bravely, gallantly, ably, pru- 
dently, wisely, badly, well, ill, thus, &c. These words are all adverbs of 
manner. 

247. Adverbs of manner are more numerous than those of any other 
class. Most of them end in ly, and are formed from adjectives. They can 
be recognized by their being convertible into the adverbial expression, in 

a manner: wisely, in a wise manner; ill, in a bad manner; ih'U»^ 

in this manner ; how, in what manner. 

248. Adverbs of Time answer the question when. 

When will he come? Answer, to-day, to-night, to-morrow, soon, 
hereafter, often, seldom, never, now, &c. These are all adverbs of time. 

249. Now frequently stands at the beginning of paragraphs, in argu- 
mentative and familiar discourse, as a general connective, without mean- 
ing at this time or modifying any particular word; as, " Now, it is evident," 
&c. In this case it is not an adverb, but a conjunction. 

250. Then belongs to this class of adverbs, being generally equivalent 
to at that time. Sometimes, however, it is used with a meuning to sum up 
the matter ; as, " You think, then, you will not go." In this case it is an 
adverb of inference. 

251. Adverbs of Place answer the question where. 

Where is he ? Answer, here, there, everywhere, somewhere, &c. 

252. The adverb there is often used expletively to introduce a sentence, 
not having its usual meaning in that place or modifying any particular word, 
as, " There were many who believed." 

253. To this class of adverbs belong a number of words commencing 
with a; as, abed, ashore, aground, &c. — probably contracted for at bed, at 
shore, at ground, &c. 

254. Adverbs of Dkection answer the question 
whither. 

Whither did he go ? Answer, thither, hither, up, down, forward, bacK- 
ward, eastward, &c. These are all adverbs of direction. 

In familiar language, where, there, and here are used instead of whither^ 
thither, and hither; as, " Where [whither] did he go?" "Come htn 
[hither]." 



134 CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 

255. Adverbs of Degree modify other adverbs and 
adjectives. 

Very short; exceedingly well done; quite pretty; as tall as I; not to 
tall as I. Very, exceedingly, quite, as, and so, expressing the degree of the 
quality denoted by the words they modify, are called adverbs of degree. 

256. So is sometimes used to express the idea of some previous word 
or words, the repetition of which would be awkward; as, " You deserve to 
be miserable, and you are so [that is, miserable']." " I feared he was aim- 
ing too high, and I told him so [that is, that I feared he was aiming too 
highy^ 

257. Adverbs of Quantity include such words as 
much, little, greatly, somewhat, enough, sufficiently, &c. 

We have already had much and Utile mentioned as pronominal adjec- 
tives. In the following expressions, they modify, not nouns or pronouns, 
but verbs or adjectives, and are therefore adverbs: — I much prefer; I lUiU 
thought ; much more learned ; a little sour. 

258. Adverbs of Inference imply a conclusion drawn 
from some previous statement or argument. Therefore^ 
wherefore, consequently, &c., are adverbs of this class. 

Adverbs of Inference are used, either alone or with other connectives, 
to join co-ordinate propositions; as, '•'■He is honest, therefore he is respected.^* 

259. Adverbs of Affirmation answer a question affirm- 
atively, or strengthen an assertion ; as, yes, surely, cer- 
tainly, verily, undoubtedly. Of course is an adverbial 
phrase of similar import. 

260. Adverbs of Negation answer a question nega- 
tively, or deny an assertion ; as, no, nay, not, &g. 

261. Adverbs of Order answer the question i7i what 
rank, or order ; as, first, secondly, thirdly, &c. • 

Avoid the use of firstly for first. 

262. Numeral Adverbs answer the question how many 
times ; as, once, twice, thrice. 

263. Interrogative Adverbs are used in asking ques- 
tions ; as, how^ when, where, why. 



CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 135 

Conjunctive Adverbs. 

264. Some adverbs of manner, time, and place, besides 
modifying verbs, connect parts of sentences. This con- 
necting is an office usually performed by conjunctions; 
and the words in question are therefore called Conjunc- 
tive Adverbs. 

" Can you tell how he manages to recite so well? " How modifies the 
verb manages, and at the same time connects the clause before it with 
that which follows ; it is therefore in this sentence a conjunctive adverb 
of manner. — "No one knows when the world will end.'' When modi- 
fies the verb will end, and also connects the two clauses into which the 
sentence is divided; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb of time. — 
" I know where Patagonia is." Where modifies the verb is, and connects 
the two clauses of the sentence; it is therefore a conjunctive adverb of 
place. 

Such expressions as the more, the less, the better, introducing correlative 
parts of sentences, may be parsed as compound conjunctive adverbs ; as, 
" The more he labored, the m^re he was laughed at." " The less you drink, 
Sfee better." 

EXERCISE. 

I. Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, and verbs. Pick out the adverbs, 
tell their class, and state what words they modify. 

" A generous man bestows his favors seasonably. The old ship 
Constitution arrived yesterday while I was away. A large army 
formerly encamped here. Each member performed his part will- 
ingly. Where is my friend ? Quite small children sometimes read 
very well. Study diligently. Always labor patiently. How often 
is he absent ? He gives twice who gives cheerfully. I do not 
know where they are now, but they have gone afoot and cannot be 
far off. . 

n. Insert adverbs of manner in place of dashes in the 
following sentences : — 

The pupil writes — The fire bums — The child talks — 

The sun shines — The lion roars — The bird sings — 

The waves dash — The flags wave — The girl coughs — 

The corn grows — Henrietta reads — The horse runs — 



136 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

III. Compose sentences each of which shall contain 
one of the following, adverbs : — 

Diligently Rapidly Assuredly Pleasantly 

Undoubtedly Possibly Probably Cheerfully 

Truly To-day To-morrow Often 

Tes Not More Most 



SECTION II. 

COMPAKISON OF AdVERBS. 

265. Some adverbs, particularly those of manner, ad- 
mit of comparison ; as, " She drives well; he drives bet' 
ter; you drive best of all." 

266. Most adverbs form their comparative by prefix- 
ing more or less to the positive, and their superlative by 
prefixing most or least ; as. 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Wisely, more wisely, less wisely ; most wisely, least wisely. 
Sadly, more sadly, less sadly ; most sadly, least sadly. 

267. A few add er for the comparative, and est for the 
superlative; as, 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Soon, sooner, soonest. 

Often, oftener, oftenest. 

268. Some adverbs are compared irregularly ; as, 

Pos. Comp. Sup. Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Well, better, best. Much, more, most. 

Badly, ill, worse, worst. ( farther, farthest. 

Little, less, least. ^^' \ further, furthest. 

269. In parsing an adverb, state to what class it 
belongs; if it can be compared, compare it, and tell 
what degree it is ; if not, state the fact ; mention what 
it modifies. 

Paesing Model. — Here we can live more happOy. 



THE PREPOSITION. 137 

Here is an adverb of place, cannot be compared, and modifies the verb 
can live, according to Rule XXV., — Adverbs generally modify verbs, parti- 
ciples, and other adverbs. 

More happily is an adverb of manner; compared, happily, more happily, 
most happily ; comparative degree ; and modifies the verb can live, according 
to Rule XXV. (Repeat it.) 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Parse the nouns, 
pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. 

Even when asleep, the tyrant never rests. Certainly no one can 
be more pleasantly situated. We went farther and fared worse. Act 
well your part ; there all the honor lies. How calmly nature sleeps 
when the din of day is o'er ! Those who labor the most assiduously 
will certainly meet with the greatest success. Thrice the British 
charged gallantly up the hill. I strove less than he, yet succeeded 
better. Were we not slaves yesterday 1 To-day we are freemen. To- 
morrow let us be conquerors. First, let us consider his labors ; secondly, 
his trials ; tbirdly, his dangers. 



CHAPTER YII. 



THE PEEPOSITION". 



270. A Preposition is a word used before a noun or 
pronoun, to show the relation between it and some other 
word. 

" He went «— England." This expression is not a complete sentence, 
because there is no word to indicate the relation between the going and 
England. To inserted before England would indicate this relation, and 
would consequently be a preposition. — " It lies — the chair." Here again 
the preposition is left out, and we cannot tell the relation between the lying 
and the chair, — whether it is on the chair, under the chair, behind the chair, 
or before the chair. Any one of these words would indicate the relation, 
and would be a preposition. 

Note. — Preposition means a plaxing before, and the words in questiou 
are so called because they generally stand before the noun or pronoun which 
is their object. 



138 



THE PREPOSITION. 



concerning 


on 


touching 


down 


over 


toward 


during 


past 


towards 


ere 


regarding 


under 


except 


respecting 


underneath 


for 


round 


until 


from 


save 


unto 


in 


since 


up 


into 


through 


upon 


notwithstanding 


throughout 


with 


of 


till 


within 


oflf 


to 


without 



271. List of the Principal Prepositions. 

About athwart 

above bef-^ro 

across behind 

after below 

against beneath 

along beside 

amid besides 

amidst between 

among betwixt 

amongst beyond 

around but 

at by 

As already remarked, a in such expressions as a fishing^ a hunting, &e., 
has the force of a preposition, and should be parsed as such. 

To, the sign of the' infinitive, must not be parsed independently as a 
preposition, but must be taken in with the verbal form ; as, to go is an 
irregular, intransitive verb; go, went, gone; infinitive mode, present tense. 

272. Two or more words combined are sometimes used as a compound 
preposition, and may be parsed as such ; as, according to, as to, with respect 
to, in regard to, from above, from below, from among, from within, as for, over 
against, instead of, out of, &c. 

273. The object of a preposition generally stands im- 
mediately after it; as, at home, without doubt. Some- 
times, however, in poetry, and also in familiar discourse, 
the object precedes the preposition; as, "the woods 
among ;^^ " What is he aiming a^.^" 

The object of a preposition may be, — 

1. A noun in the objective case; as, in Portland, for my sake. 

2. A pronoun in the objective case; as, with me, by ourselves. 

3. A verb in the infinitive mode; as, about to commence. 

4. A clause, or part of a sentence ; as, without mentioning the partic- 
vlars. 

274. A preposition and its object taken together con- 
stitute what is called an Adjunct. 

275. Adjuncts are used as Adjectives to modify nouns, and as adverbs 
to modif}' verbs. They are termed adjective adjuncts or adverbial adjuncts 
according to their use. 



THE PREPOSITION. 139 

An adjunct maj denote various relations. Among these are,— 

1. Quality, in which case it is equivalent to an adjective: as, a man 
of piety, — that is, a pious man; a state of bhss, — that is, a blissful state; 
habits of industry, — that is, industrious habits. 

2. State: as, a nation in debt ; a person in distress; a ship under sail. 

3. Place: as, plants in o garden; waters under the earth; he walks wi 
ihe grove. 

4. Possession, in which case it is equivalent to a noun in the posses- 
sive case: as, the trials of life, — that is, life's trials; the sons of Aaron, -^ 
that is, Aaron's sons. 

5. Time, in which case it is equivalent to an adverb : as, he sailed in 
ike night. 

276. Some of the prepositions are apt to be confounded with adverbs 
or conjunctions identical with them in form. The word in question is a 
preposition when followed by an object, and not otherwise. " He rode past 
the house; " past, being followed by the object house, is a preposition: but 
if we say, " He rode past," ^osi has no object, and is an adverb of direction. 
— "He has gone for the doctor ;" ybr, being followed by doctor as its 
object, is a preposition: but if we say, " He has gone, for the doctor advised 
him to take a voyage," for is not a preposition, since it is not followed by 
any object, but simply connects the two members of the sentence. 

277. A preposition (without an object) is sometimes connected with a 
verbal adjective, forming one compound term: as, "The event was un- 
looked for." " The measure was uncalled for.'" In parsing such an ex- 
pression, the words should be taken together; as, Mn^ooA;ec? /br is a verbal 
adjective; compared, unlooked for, more unlooJced for, most unlocked for ; 
positive degree, and belongs to event. 

In like manner, a preposition is sometimes joined to an intransitive 
verb, forming one compound term and rendering the verb transitive : as, 
"He disposed of his property." "His ■pro-pertj has been disposed of ." In 
such expressions, the preposition should be regarded as forming part of the 
verb (which is thus rendered transitive), and should be parsed with it; as, 
has been disposed of is a, regular transitive verb, passive voice, mdicative, 
perfect, third, singular. 

278. In parsing a preposition, state the words between 
which it shows the relation. 

Parsing Model. — He walked with me the hills among. 

With is a preposition, and shows the relation between its object me and 
the verb walked. 

Among is a preposition, and shows the relation between its object hiUt 
and the verb walked. 



140 THE CONJUNCTION. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences. Pick out the ad- 
juncts and tell what words they modify. Parse the parts 
of speech that have been considered. 

The sun sank below the western horizon, among clouds of fore- 
boding darkness. I heard the crashing of the pointed rocks through 
the bottom of the ship. Around and above us, before us and behind 
ns, blazed the fearful artillery of heaven. Notwithstanding his great 
wealth, accumulated during a life of hardships, he died uncared for. 
From my youth up I have noticed that without industry we cannot 
hope to succeed. As to John, at my suggestion he has gone a swim- 
ming. Tenedos lay over against Troy, and within a few miles of it. 
He sincerely repented of his sins. His sins were sincerely repented of. 
Over hill and dale they marched, across streams, through marshes, up 
mountains, amid obstacles of every kind. What was referred to in 
Sir Robert Peel's remarks 1 According to orders, they journeyed from 
dawn till sunset. No one but Alexander would have ventured on such 
an undertaking. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE CONJUNCTION. 

279. A Conjunction is a word used to connect two 
or more single words, adjuncts, phrases, clauses, members, 
or sentences. 

Single Words. — Tigers and elephants abound in India. 
Adjuncts. — Penn met the Indians with kindness and in the spirit of 

love. 
* Phrases. — The war having ended, and peace being esiahlisked, we 
returned home. 
Clauses. — Milton, whose genius was transcendent and whose poetry will 

live forever, was blind. 
Members. — Achilles was a great warrior, but Homer was a great poet. 
Sentences. — The day passeth ; the night cometh. Keyebtheless, 
there is yet an opportunity to redeem the time. 



THE CONJUNCTION. 141 

The several classes of connectives should be carefully distinguished. 

1. Prepositions connect only words, and require the subsequent sub- 
stantive to be in the objective case. 

2. Relative pronouns connect the clauses iu which they stand to their 
antecedents. 

3. Connective adverbs, besides their connecting power, express the rela- 
tions of time, place, and manner. 

4. Conjugations, in general, have no modifying power, and merely 
serve to connect the elements of a sentence. 

280. There are two classes of Conjugations, Co-ordi- 
nate and Subordinate. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions connect elements of the 
same construction. 

Subordinate Conjunctions introduce clauses and phrases 
as elements of another proposition. 

Conjugative adverbs and relative pronouns have the connecting power 
of subordinate conjugations. 

List of the Pkincipal Conjunctions. 

Co-ordinate Conjunctions. — And, also, besides, both — and, nor, neither 
— nor, moreover, but also, first — secondly — again — lastly; but, yet, 
nevertheless, however, or, either — or, else; for, therefore, accordingly, 
hence, wherefore. 

Subordinate Conjunctions, — That, whether, if; as, before, since ; be- 
cause, unless, except, provided, though, although, lest, in order that, than. 

281. Two or more words combined are sometimes used as a compound 
conjunction, and may be parsed as such; as, in order that, inasmuch as, as 
well as, as if, as though, &c. 

282. We have already had as mentioned as an adverb of degree, — as 
tail, as good. It is a conjunction in the following cases : — 

1. When used after a preceding as or so, to connect clauses containing 
the names of two objects compared; as, " She is as tall as I." " She is not 
BO tail as her brother is." 

2. When it connects words in apposition, — that is, words referring to 
the same object and in the same case; as, "The government sent Clay as 
commissioner." Commissioner refers to the same person as Clay, and is 
put in the same case; as connects the two words, and is a conjunction. 

3. When it connects clauses containing adjectives and participles with 
the words which they qualify; as, " I regard him as almost ruined." 

4. When it is used to introduce examples, as in the line above. 



142 THE CONJUNCTION. 

283. Both, already mentioned as a pronominal adjective, is a conjunct 
tion when with and it connects two words that are in the same construc- 
tion; as, " She was both graceful and witty." Both and anJ, connecting 
the two adjectives graceful and witty, are conjunctions. — Observe that 
both must not be used in this way if more than two words are connected. 
It would be improper to say, " She is both handsome, graceful, and witty." 

284. But is an adverb when equivalent to only, and a preposition when 
equivalent to except. In all other cases it is a conjunction. 

Adverb. — There were hut [only] twelve Caesars. 

Preposition. — All hut [except] him were drowned. 

Conjunction. — Were there not ten cleansed, but where are the nine ? 

285. Than is a conjunction, but with the relative who it is used by 
some good writers with the force of a preposition governing the objective; 
as, " Nero, than whom no other was more cruel." This is contrary to all 
analogy; we would say, " more cruel than /," not than me. 

286. In parsing conjunctions, state what they connect. 
Parsing Model. — Queen Elizabeth, although discreet and 

energetic in public matters, was aibitrary and disagreeable in private life. 

Although is a conjunction, and connects the clause discreet and energetic 
in public matters with Queen Elizabeth was arbitrary and disagreeable in pri- 
vate life. 

And is a conjunction, and connects the words arbitrary and disa- 



EXERCISE. 

I. Compose twelve sentences, each of which shall 
contain in order one of the first twelve conjunctions in 
the above list (§ 280). 

II. Parse the following sentences : — 

Horses, though now found wild in great numbers in Mexico and 
South America, are not natives of this continent, but have sprung 
from those introduced by the Spaniards. Both New Yoi'k and 
Albany were founded by the Dutch. K I mistake not, I have read 
that labor conquers all things. Whether we shall go or not is un- 
certain; for our letters have not arrived. Beavers can live either on 
land or in the water. Neither cotton nor sugar will grow in England, 
because the climate is too cold. A sailor has a harder life than 
most men, unless he has very kind oflGlcers. I would like to be 
silent ; but, since duty requires it, I must speak. Galileo, than whom 
no greater philosopher lived, died the same year in which Newton was 
born. 



THE INTERJECTION. 143 

CHAPTER IX. 

THE INTEBJECTIOIT. 

287. An Inter) ecti.on is a word used to express some 
strong or sudden emotion ; as, oh / alas ! 

Note. — Interjection means a throwing among ; and the words in ques- 
tion are so called because they are generally thrown in among other words 
with which they have no grammatical connection. They may, however, 
commence a sentence, or be used alone. 

Every interjection except should be immediately followed by an 
exclamation point ( ! ) unless it is very closely connected with other words. 

288. Interjections express, — 1. Sorrow; as, oh! ah! alas! 2. Exul- 
tation; SlS, hurrah! huzza! aha! bravo! 3. Disgust; as, ^e ! fudge f tush! 
pshaw! 4. Wonder; as, indeed! strange! what! 5. A sudden call; as, 
ho! hallo! 6. Salutation; as, 0, welcome! hail! 7. Taking leave: as, 
good-by, farewell, adieu. 8. A demand for attention or silence ; as, hark ! 
hush! hist! lo ! behold! 

289. Adjectives, verbs, and other parts of speech, when thrown into a 
sentence without any grammatical connection with its other words, are 
used as interjections, and may be parsed as such; as, wonderful! horrible! 
tee! listen! away! 

290. Oh must be distinguished from 0. The former may be used by 
itself, may commence with a small letter, and implies sorrow or surprise; 
the latter is used only with the name of some object addressed, or pronouu 
standing for it, and is always a capital. " Oh! what a fall was there! " 
" Sleep, why hast thou fled my pillow ? " 

Parsing Model. — Fie upon thee, knave ! 
Fie is an interjection, expressing disgust. 

PARSING EXERCISE. 

Behold ! how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell 
together in unity ! What ! could ye not watch with me one hour ! 
"What ho ! stranger, whence come you ? Oh for a lodge in some vast 
wilderness ! Ah ! woe is me. Bravo ! he answers like a lad of 
spirit. Adieu forever, home of my infancy ! Enough ! you have 
shown me the fallacy of all human pretensions. Hark ! some one 
comes. Indeed ! has he started 1 Pshaw ! the harder I work, the less 
I seem to succeed. 



144 REVIEW QUESTIONS. 



KEVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTERS VII., VIIL, IX. 

241. What is an adverb ? Give examples. 242. With what are ad- 
verbs apt to be confounded? How may adjectives and adverbs be distin- 
guished ? 243. How can the meaning of most adverbs be expressed ? 244. 
What is an adverbial phrase? 

245. How are adverbs divided? 246. What question do adverbs of 
manner answer? Give examples. 247. In what do most of them end? 
How can they be recognized? 248. What question do adverbs of time 
answer? Give*examples. 249. What force has now in some sentence?? 
250. What is then sometimes equivalent to? 251. What question do 
adverbs of place answer? 252. How is there often used? 253. What 
words belong to this class of adverbs? 254. What question do adirerbs of 
direction answer? Give examples. 255. In familiar language, what are 
used instead of whither, thither, and hither f 256. What do adverbs of de- 
gree modify? Give examples. 257. How is so sometimes used? 258, 
What words are included among adverbs of quantity ? Give examples of 
the use of much and Uitle as adverbs. 259. What do adverbs of inference 
imply? Give examples. What use have adverbs of inference? 260. 
What is the office of adverbs of affirmation? 261. What is the office of ad- 
verbs of negation ? 262. What question do adverbs of order answer ? 263 
What question do numeral adverbs answer? For what are interrogative 
adverbs used ? 

264. What is meant by conjunctive adverbs ? Give examples. How 
may such expressions as the more, the less, &c., be parsed? 

265. Of what are some adverbs susceptible? 266. How do most ad- 
verbs form their comparative and superlative ? 267. What terminations do 
some annex? Give examples. 268. Compare well; badly; little; much; 
far. 269. How is an adverb parsed? 

270. What is a preposition? Give examples. What does the word 
preposition mean ? 271. Recite the list of prepositions. How is a to be 
parsed in such expressions as a Jishing, &c. ? How is to, the sign of the 
infinitive, to be parsed? 272. What is meant by compoucd prepositions? 
Give examples. 273. How does the preposition stand, as regards its ob- 
ject? What may the object of a preposition be? 274. What is an ad- 
junct? 275. To what are adjuncts joined? What may an adjunct de- 
note? For what are adjuncts used? 276. With what are prepositions apt 
to be confounded? How can they be distinguished? 277. How are such 
expressions as unlooked for to be parsed? "What is sometimes the force of 
a preposition joined to an intransitive verb ? 278. In parsing prepositions, 
what must be stated ? 

279. What is a conjunction? Give examples. Name the different classes 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 145 

of connectives, and their uses. 280. What are co-ordinate conjunctions? 
What are subordinate conjunctions ? What words are used as subordinates ? 
Name the co-ordinate conjunctions. Name the subordinate conjunctions. 
281. What is a compound conjunction ? 282. What part of speech is as ? 
In what cases is as a conjunction ? 283. In what case is both a conjunction ? 
Wnen is it improper to use the conjunction both ? 284. When is bitt an 
adverb, when a preposition, and when a conjunction ? 285. What part of 
speech is than f What is said of the construction than whom ? 286. In 
parsing conjunctions what must be stated ? 

287. What is an interjection? What does the word interjection mean? 
By what should interjections be followed? 288. What do interjections 
express? 289, What may be used as interjections? 290. What distinc- 
tion must be observed in the use of oh and Ot 
10 



PART III. 



CHAPTER X. 

SECTION I. 
The Elements of Sentences. 

291. Words are either signs of ideas, or signs denot- 
ing the relation between ideas. 

Idea words are nouns, pronouns, adjectiyes, verbs (except the copula 
be), and adverbs of time, manner, and place. 

Relational words are tbe copula be, prepositions, interjections, most 
adverbs, and conjunctions. Relations are also expressed by the inflectional 
terminations of words ; as. King's, whom, horses. 

In the forms, Man is mortal, Summer is pleasant, the words man, mortal, 
mmmer, pleasant, express ideas ; while the copula shows the relation of the 
ideas. The whole expresses a thought. 

A thought is two or more ideas, bearing a given 
relation to each other and the speaker ; as. The summer 
is pleasant. The summer has been pleasant. The sum,- 
mer will be pleasant. 

A Sentence is a thought expressed in words. Every 
sentence consists of at least three essential elements ; the 
Subject, the Copula, and the Attribute. 

The Subject is that of which something is asserted, 
and is either a substantive, or a word, phrase, or clause 
used substantively. 

The Copula is generally some form of the verb to be, 
and is used to show the relation between the subject and 
attribute. 



EXAMPLES. 




Ccypula. 
was 
is 
is 
is 

shall be 
is (bums) 
is (walks) 


Attribute. 
an apostle, 
delightful. 
to deceive, 
beyond question. 
Let truth prevaU. 
burning, 
walking. 



THE ELEMENTS OP SENTENCES. 147 

The Attribute is that which expresses the state, 
quality, condition, &c. of the subject, and may be any 
idea, word, phrase, or clause. 

The Predicate is that which is asserted of the subject, 
and consists of the copula and attribute taken together, 
or a verb embracing both. 

Subject. 

Paul 

Singing 

To lie 

That I have succeeded 

My motto 

The fire 

He 

The Subject without any modifiers is termed the 
Grammatical Subject; the Predicate without any modi- 
fiers is termed the Grammatical Predicate. 

The subject maybe modified by a noun in apposition; an adjective; 
a preposition with its object (adjunct); a participle; a verb in the infini- 
tive ; a clause ; a phrase ; and sometimes an adverb. 

The Subject modified by one or more words is called 
the Logical Subject. 

The grammatical predicate may be modified by a noun in the objec- 
tive case (if the verb is transitive); a verb in the infinitive; an adverb; a 
preposition with its object (adjunct); a clause; an adjective; a phrase; 
and a quoted sentence. 

The Predicate modified by one or more words is called 
the Logical Predicate 

A Proposition is an assertion containing one subject 
and one predicate ; as. Birds fly. 

A Simple Sentence consists of but one proposition ; 
as, Bummer is pleasant. 

292. A Leading Proposition is the principal assertion 
of a sentence ; as, jSolomon, who was the son of David, 
built the temple. 



148 THE ELEMENTS OP SENTENCES. 

A Clause is a dependent proposition, used to Intro 
duce an additional fact or circumstance into a sentence; 
as, Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal^ mocked 
them. 

A Complex Sentence consists of a leading proposi- 
tion and one or more clauses; as, Make hay^ while the 
sun shines, 

293. A Member of a sentence is such a part as ex- 
presses an independent thought, and has a distinct subject 
and predicate of its own ; as. The wind blows (1), and the 
rainfalls (2). 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more mem- 
bers ; as, God spake^ and it was done. 

Sometimes, to prevent repetition, the grammatical predicate is omitted 
in the last member of a compound sentence; as, " Dryden believed iu 
astrology, Hobbes [believed] in ghosts." 

The members of a compound sentence are connected by co-ordinate 
conjunctions. 

Clauses, leading propositions, and members must not be confounded. 
A clause is always dependent in sense, and generally in construction; a 
leading proposition is independent in construction, and, while it makes 
complete sense when separated from the other words in the sentence, may 
be modified in meaning by phrases, adjuncts, or clauses, introducing addi- 
tional facts or circumstances; a member is independent both in construction 
and sense, and may contain the leading proposition and its modifying 
clauses, or may be limited to a single proposition. 

Columbus, who discovered America^ was born in Italy ; but Ms great enter- 
prise was fostered by Spain. The two portions of this sentence separated 
by the semicolon are members, each being complete in itself as regards 
both construction and sense. The first member is a complex element; 
consisting of the leading proposition, Columbus was born in Italy, which is 
complete in construction and also in sense ; and the clause, who discovered 
America^ which merely introduces another fact concerning Columbus, does 
not make complete sense by itself, and is dependent in construction 
through the relation existing between the relative, who, and its antecedent 
Columbus. The second member of the sentence, his great enterprise was 
foitered by Spain^ is a single and independent proposition. 



THE ELEMENTS OF SENTENCES. 149 

294. A Phrase is two or more words which express 
some relation of ideas, but do not contain an entire 
proposition; as, Being a young man. To live soherly. 
In fine. 

An Adjunct consists of a preposition and its object; 
as, In Boston, Over the hills. 

295. The term Element is conveniently applied to 
the different parts of a sentence, whether members, lead- 
ing propositions, clauses, phrases, adjuncts, or words. 
Elements are simple, complex, or compound, according 
to the number of similar or dissimilar parts they con- 
tain. They may be classified as essential, accessory, or 
independent, according to their use in the structure of a 
sentence. 

The essential elements of a sentence are three ; Sub- 
ject, Copula, and Attribute. The accessory elements 
are also three, and are termed Substantive, Adjective, 
and Adverbial, according to their ofiice. An indepen- 
dent element has no grammatical dependence on other 
words. 

Examples. — The wind drives the stubble over the fields. This is a sim- 
ple declarative sentence. The loind drives the stubble is the leading proposi- 
tion ; over the fields is an adverbial adjunct, modifying drives. 

In vain Wellington tried to overtake the enemy fleeing before him. This 
is a simple declarative sentence. Wellington tried to overtaJce the enemy is 
the leading proposition, modified by the adverbial phrase in vain. Fleeing 
before him is an adjective phrase modifying enemy and containing the ad- 
junct before him. 

Solomon, who built the temple, was the son of David. This is a complex 
declarative sentence. Solomon was the son of David is the leading proposi- 
tion, containing the adjunct of David. Who built the temple is a clause used 
to introduce an additional fact respecting Solomon. 

Cicero, while in the enjoyment of youth, was covered with glory; hut when 
old age came upon him, he was disturbed by the misfortunes of the republic. 
This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two members cou- 
lected by hut. Cicero was covered with glory is the leading proposition of 



150 CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 

the first member, containing the adjunct toith glory. While in the enjoy- 
ment oj" youth is an adverbial phrase expressing time, containing the adjunct 
in ihf. enjoyment, which is modified by the adjunct of youth. He was dis- 
turbed by the misfortunes of the republic is the leading proposition of the sec- 
ond member. By the misfortunes is an adjunct modifying the grammatical 
predicate was disturbed, and itself modified by the adjunct of the republic. 
When old age came upon him is a clause expressing time, and containing the 
adjunct upon him. 

EXERCISE. 
According to the examples just given, point out the 
members, leading propositions, clauses, phrases, and ad- 
juncts, in the following sentences. Parse each word. 

God, who made all things, is acquainted with our most secret 
thoughts. 

The drum and fife can sometimes drown the battle's noise, when 
there is no way to escape it. In general, great talkers are not fluent 
writers. 

In the beginning of this address I said, and I have endeavored 
to keep my word so far, that I would plead only for intellectual 
interests. 

The curfew tolls the knell of parting day ; 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea ; 
The plowman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me. 



SECTION II. 
Classification op Clauses. 

Clauses are distinguished as Substantive, Adjective, 
and Adverbial. 

296. A Substantive Clause is one that performs the 
office of a noun in the nominative or objective case. 

A substantive clause may be used, — 

1. In apposition with a noun; as, " The question whether we shall go is 
yet undecided." 



CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 151 

2. As the subject-nominative of a verb ; as, " Whether we shall go is 
yet undecided." 

3. As the predicate-nominative ; as, " The question is whether we shaU 
go" 

4. As the object of a transitive verb or preposition ; as, " We have not 
yet said whether we shall go," 

297. Quotations, though constituting complete prop- 
ositions in themselves, generally form part of the logical 
predicate of a complex sentence, modifying the grammati- 
cal predicate as the object of a verb, and hence belong to 
this class of clauses. 

A quotation is direct when the words of a person are given unaltered 
in the form in which they were stated ; as, " Socrates said, ^AU are suffix 
ciently eloquent in that which they understand.^ " A quotation is indirect 
when the words of a person are given in the form of a narration ; as, " Soc- 
rates said that all were sufficiently eloquent in thai which they understood.''^ 
Direct quotations are introduced by incorporation, that is, without intro- 
ductory words; indirect quotations, by the conjunction that. A quoted 
question is introduced by (/", whether, or some interrogative word. 

Substantive clauses are also introduced by the conjunction that, and 
by the relative pronouns that, what, whoso, whosoever, whatever, whatsoever ; 
as, " He rejoices lliat we are free.'''' " What is right for one is right for 
another." 

298. An Adjective Clause is one that has the force of 
an adjective, generally implying some quality or attribute; 
as, Cabot, who discovered Newfoundland^ was a native of 
Bristol. 

Adjective clauses frequently serve to define the state, quality, or con- 
dition of an object more exactly than a single adjective, participle, or ad- 
junct could do; as, Peter, having a sword, drew it. Peter, who had a stoord, 
drew it. 

Adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns who, which, 
that, and as, or by the adverbs where, whither, whence, when; as. The place 
where I was born. 

299. An Adverbial Clause is one that performs the 
office of an adverb, denoting manner, time, place, &c. ; 
as. 



152 CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 

Manner. — He walked better than I ever saw him walk before. 

Time. — When centuries shall have rolled away, our institutions will still 
survive. 

Place. — Where the rapids commence, a small point of land juts out. 

Adverbial clauses are very numerous and important. They are de- 
veloped from adverbs and adverbial phrases, and form six classes : — 

1. Advei-bial clauses of Place, introduced by where, whither, whence ; 
as, I reap where I sowed not. 

2. Adverbial clauses of Time, introduced by as, when, while, before^ 
till, after, since ; as, He trembled as he spoke. 

3. Adverbial clauses of Manner, introduced by as, so thai, than, &c.; 
as, He did as he was directed. 

4. Adverbial clauses of Cause, introduced by because, since, that, in 
order that, lest ; as. Because he is good, he is loved. 

The relation of cause is generally expressed by co-ordinate proposi- 
tions. This is always the case when the cause is prominent. 

5. Adverbial clauses of Condition, introduced by if, unless, except, prO" 
vided, though, although, &c.; as. If he is in health, I am content. 

6. Adverbial clauses of Intensity, introduced by as^ than, and the com- 
pound conjunctive adverbs the moi'c, the better, &c. ; as, The more you etudy^ 
the more you will learn. 

EXERCISE. 

Parse and analyze the following sentences. Point out 
the leading propositions, clauses, and adjuncts. When a 
clause is mentioned state its class. 

He studies that he may learn. The jailor asked, What shall I 
do? Although the fig-tree shall not blossom, yet will I rejoice. 
That you have wronged me, doth appear in this. Knowest thou the 
land where the citron blooms 1 The arrow has gone where no one 
can find it. He has worked harder than James has. The land that 
we love is our country. Whoso is wise, let him learn of me. He 
writes as fast as the orator speaks. In order that he might escape, he 
changed his dress. Unless you study more diligently, you will fail. 
He died before I was born. Ye know not whence it comes. Whither 
I go, ye know. Whatsoever I have, I wdll give you. While.I live, I 
will praise him. I do not know where he is. I know when he died. I 
Baw him when he was dying. He is richer than his brother Hand- 
some is that handsome does. 



CLASSIFICATION OP PHRASES. 153 

SECTION III. 
Classification of Phkases. 

300. Phrases may be divided into three classes, 
Substantive, Adjective, and Adverbial. 

A substantive phrase is one that performs the office of 
a noun in the nominative or objective case. 

A substantive phrase may be used, — 

1. In apposition with a noun or pronoun; as, It is a difficult thing to 
become a poet. 

2. As the subject or predicate nominative ; as, To steal is to break the 
law. 

3. As the object of a transitive verb or preposition; as, Most men love 
to he called great. 

An Adjective Phrase is one that has the force of an 
adjective, generally implying some quality or attribute ; 
as, Xike all the other works of the Almighty., the eyu is 
wonderfully adapted to the purposes for which it is 
designed. 

An Adverbial Phrase is one that performs the office 
of an adverb, denoting time, place, manner, &c. ; as. The 
war having ended., we returned. 

Adjuncts are frequently termed phrases ; but it is better to consider 
them as adjective or adverbial adjuncts, according to their office in the 
sentence. 

Other combinations frequently occur having no modifying power, 
wMch might be termed conjunctive or prepositional phrases, according to 
their office in the sentence ; as, as well as, on account of. 

Nouns and pronouns, denoting objects addressed, or 
used in exclamations, or without grammatical dependence 
on other words, constitute what are called independent 
expressions ; as, Welcome, stranger. The fathers — where 
are they ? 

Adverbs and inteqections are frequently used independently; as, alas I 
hu^ ! amen^ verily. 



154 CONTRACTED ELEMENTS. 

SECTION IV 
Contracted Elements, 

301. Sometimes a sentence is so constructed as to 
have two or more subjects and but one predicate, or two 
or more predicates and but one subject. These abridged 
forms may be termed Contracted Sentences, and analyzed 
as such, by stating the number of subjects and predicates, 
and then giving their various modifications, or they may 
be expanded by supplying the omissions, and then treated 
as compound sentences. 

Contracted sentences may form the principal elements of complex and 
compound sentences. 

It is well to make three classes of contracted sentences, viz. : — 

1. One subject and two or more predicates; as, " John reads and 
writes." 

2. Two or more subjects and one predicate; as, " James and John 
read." 

3. Two subjects and two predicates; as, " James and John read and 
write." 

In like manner, clauses may be so changed or abridged as to form 
phrases of equivalent meaning; as, while Tarquin was reigning = Tarquin. 
reigning. I hope that I may see you there = I hope to see you there. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Parse and analyze the following sentences. Point 
out the members, the leading propositions, the clauses, 
phrases, and adjuncts. State the class of the clauses and 
phrases. 

He drew up a petition in which he too freely represented his 
own merits. In conversing on grave subjects, we should not use 
lively and familiar forms of expression. Some, presuming on the 
good-nature of their fi-iends, write their letters in a hasty and un- 
connected manner. Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 
Let the doors be shut upon him, that he may play the fool nowhere 
but in his own house. His predictions were only too true, as the 
event proved. His constant request was that I would permit him to 
sit by me in my saloon. The crime of being a young man I shall 



MODIFICATION OP WORDS. 155 

neither palliate nor deny. To plow is hard work. His attempt to 
Kscue his friend was, alas ! fatal to himself. This haying failed, he 
gave Tip in despair. I have learned to live soberly ; but he cannot 
restrain his appetites. Scipio was valiant ; Caesar, victorious ; Fabri- 
cius prudent ; but Hannibal was all these. The judge that sat on the 
bench was convinced, long before the cause was finished, that the pris- 
oner was guilty of the crime with which he was charged. 

II. Complete each of the following sentences, by 
inserting either a substantive, adjective, or adverbial 
clause, in place of the dash. State what kind of a clause 
you insert. 

The teachers will be gratefully remembered. The trees 

grow thriftily. is hard to decide. I will not do it . That 

Great Being is eternal. The cars ran over a man . He has 

sent his son to Germany . Those will be respected. The 

letter contains good news. He has built a fine house . 



SECTION V. 
Modification of Words. 

302. Conjunctions and interjections, from their very 
nature, are not susceptible of modification by other words. 
The remaining parts of speech are modified in various 
ways, the principal of which are as follows. 

303. A noun may be modified, — 

1. By a noun in apposition; as, George, the Icing. 

2. By an adjective; as, A tall mast. 

3. By an adjunct; as, A life o/" toi7. 

4. By a participle ; as, The sun rising. 

5. By a clause; as, The land that we love. 

6. By a phrase; as, Man, made in the image of his Creator. 

7. By an adverb ; as. Not my feet only. 

8. By a verb in the infinitive; as, A time to die. 

9. By a noun in the possessive case ; as, LoVs wife. 

A pronoun may be modified by all the above except 
the last two. 



156 MODIFICATION OF WORDS. 

304. A verb or participle may be modified, — 

1. By a noun in the objective case, if the verb is transitive; as, The 

sun gives light. 

2. By a verb in the infinitive ; as, He hopes <o return. 

3. By an adjunct; as, I walk in the grove. 

4. By a clause ; as, I hope that you are well. 

5. By an adverb ; as, The wind blows violently. 

6. By a phrase ; as, In vain he labors. 

7. By a quoted sentence ; as, Bion said, " Know thyself.*^ 

305. An adjective may be modified, — 

1. By an adverb ; as. Very rich. 

2. By a verb in the infitiitive; as. Pleasant to behold. 

3. By an adjunct; as. True to nature. 

4. By another adjective ; as. Bright red. 

5. By a phrase ; as, in general successful. 

306. An adverb may be modified, — 

1. By another adverb ; as, 3fost assuredly. 

2. By an adjunct; as, Agreeably to nature^ most of alL 

307. A preposition may be modified, — 

1. By an adverb ; as. Far beyond. 

2. By a noun in the objective case; as. Over the hills. 

3. By a verb in the infinitive ; as. About to depart. 

308. Modifying words may themselves be modified 
in various ways ; as, " Alexander marched very rapidly." 
The adverb rapidly., which modifies the verb marched, is 
itself modified by the adverb very. 

EXERCISE. 
Write twelve sentences which shall contain in order, — . 

1. A noun modified by another noun in apposition with it. 

2. A noun modified by a verb in the infinitive. 

3. A noun modified by another noun in the possessive case. 

4. A pronoun modified by a clause. 

5. A pronoun modified by an adverb. 

6. A verb modified by a noun in the objective case. 

7. A participle modified by a verb in the infinitive. 

8. An adjective modified by an adverb. 

9. An adjective modified by an adjunct. 

10. An adverb modified by another adverb. 

11. A preposition modified by a noun in the objective. 
'2 A preposition modified by a verb in the infinitive. 



FORMS FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 



157 





RECAPITULATION. 




A Noun. 




Subject. 


Substantive Clause. 




■ Essential 




Substantive Phrase. 




Elements. , 




Copula . . . to be. 






. Predicate. ■ 


{ Noun. 
Adjective. 










J Clause. 


Proposition. 




Attribute.' Phrase. 
Adjunct. 
[ Adverb. 
Noun. 






Substantive. ■ 


Clause. 
Phrase. 
Adjective. 




Accessory 




Clause. 




, Elements. - 


Adjective. 


Phrase. 






Adjunct. 






Adverb. 






Clause. 


SE 


^ Adverbal. 


Phrase. 
Adjunct. 


CTION Y] 




Forms fob Parsing and Analysis. 




I. Forms for Parsing. 



N'oun. — Class, person, number, gender, case, disposal, 
rule. 

Pronoun. — Class, decline, person, number, gender, 
case, disposal, rule. 

Helative Pronoun. — Class, antecedent, decline, per- 
son, number, gender, relation, case, disposal, rule. 

Adjective. — Class, compare, degree, modifies, rule. 

■r^ . -, ^ T. i Used as adjective, limits, rule. 

Pronominm Adi.i-rr a t, 

•^ ( U sed as pronoun, person, numbei, 

gender, case, disposal, rule. 

Verb. — Transitive or intransitive, principal parts, reg- 



158 FORMS FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 

ular or irregular, voice, mode, tense, person, number, 
agreement, rule. 

Participle. — Kind, name them, how used, govern- 
ment, rule. 

Adverb. — Class, disposal, rule. 

Preposition. — Office, rule. 

Conjunction. — Office, rule. 

Interjection. — Use, rule. 

II. Rules for Analysis. 

1. Never supply words unless necessary to the con* 
struction. 

2. Pestore the omitted words before commencing to 
analyze. 

III. Forms for Analysis. 

I. Classify the 

r . , I declarative, 

simple, . ,' 

, J interrogative, 

sentence as < complex, and as -{ . *=. ' 

, I imperative, 

compound, ^ 

"^ \ exclamatory, 

n. If simple, state the kind : 

1. Name the grammatical subject, the modifiers in 

order, the logical subject; 

2. Name the grammatical predicate, copula, attribute, 

the modifiers in order, the logical predicate. 

III. If complex, state the kind : 

1. Name the leading proposition ; 

2. Name the clauses and give the office of each ; 

3. Analyze the leading proposition as in II.; 

4. Analyze each clause as in II. 
lY. If compound, state the kind : 

1. Name the members composing it ; 

2. Analyze each member in order. 

a. The simple members as in II. 

b. The complex members as in III. 



►or mixed. 



FOEMS FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 159 

Model I. — Large trees of the forest grow verj rapidly in 
summer. 

This is a simple declarative sentence. 

The grammatical subject is trees, which is modified by the adjective 
large, and the adjunct of the forest. 

The adjunct of the forest is composed of the preposition o/", and its 
object, ybres^, which is modified by the adjective the. ' • 

The logical subject is large trees of the forest. 

The grammatical predicate is grow, which embraces copula and attri- 
bute, and is modified by the adverb rapidly, and this is modified by the 
adverb very; the grammatical predicate is also modified by the adjunct in 
mmmer, which consists of the preposition in, and its object, summer. 

The logical predicate is grow very rapidly in summer. 

Model EL. — You will depart with but a small retinue, said the 
baronet. 

This is a complex declarative sentence. 

The leading proposition is the baronet said. 

The direct quotation. You will depart with but a small retinue, is a sub- 
stantive clause, modifying the predicate of the leading proposition. 

The grammatical subject of the leading proposition is baronet; it is 
modified by the adjective the. 

The logical subject is the baronet. 

The grammatical predicate of the leading proposition is said, which 
embraces copula and attribute, and is modified by its object, the substantive 
clause, You will depart, &c. 

The logical predicate of the sentence is said you will depart loith but a 
small retinue. 

The substantive clause, You will depart with but a small retinue, is a 
simple proposition, introduced by incorporation. 

You is the grammatical and logical subject. 

The grammatical predicate is will depart, which embraces copula and 
attribute, and is modified by the adjunct with but a small retinue. 

The adjunct with but a small retinue consists of the preposition with^ 
■and its object, retinue, which is modified by the adjectives a and small. 
The adjective small is modified by the adverb but. The logical predicate is 
mil depart with but a small retinue. 

Model III. — I thought that Titus was your friend. 

This is a complex declarative sentence, consisting of the leading prop- 
osition / thought, and the substative clause Titus was your friend, which is 
connected to the leading proposition by the conjunction that. 

/is the simple and logical subject of the leading proposition. 



160 FORMS FOR PARSING AND ANALYSIS. 

Thought is the grammatical predicate, embracing copula and attribute!, 
and is modified by the substantive clause Titus loas your friend. 

Thought thai Titus was your friend is the logical predicate of the sen- 
tence. 

The substantive clause, Titus was your friend, is a simple proposition. 

Titu^ is the grammatical and logical subject; was ftnend is the gram- 
igatical predicate, consisting of the copula was and the attribute friend, 
which here serves as the predicate-nominative to the substantive verb wcw, 
and is modified by the pronoun your. 

Was your friend is the logical predicate. 

Model IV. — A soft answer turneth away wrath; but grievous 
words stir up anger. 

This is a compound declarative sentence, consisting of two members 
connected by the conjunction but. 

The first member is A soft answer turneth away wrath; the second 
member is grievous words stir up anger. Each member is a simple propo- 
sition. 

The grammatical subject of the first member is answer, which is mod- 
ified by the adjectives a and soft. The logical subject is a soft ansicer. 

The grammatical predicate is turneth, which embraces copula and at- 
tribute, and is modified by its object, wrath, and the adverb away. 

The logical predicate is turneth away wrath. 

The grammatical subject of the second member is words, which is 
modified by the adjective grievous. 

The logical subject is grievous words. 

The grammatical predicate is stir, which embraces copula and attri- 
bute, and is modified by its object, anger, and the adverb up. 

The logical predicate is stir up anger. 

EXERCISE. 

Give a full analysis of the following sentences on the 
plan of the models just given. Parse them. 

I recollect hearing a traveller, of poetical temperament, expressing 
the kind of horror which he felt at beholding, on the banks of the 
Missouri, an oak of prodigious size, which had been in a manner over- 
powered by an enormous wild grape-vine. The Aane had elapsed its 
huge folds round the trunk, and thegce had wound about every branch 
and twig, until the mighty tree had withered in its embrace. It seemed 
like Laocoon struggling ineffectually in the hideous coils of the monster 
serpent. It was the lion of trees perishing in the embrace of a 
vegetable boa. 



EEYIEW QUESTIONS. 161 

Since life is short, it becomes us to be diligent. As the way waa 
iteep and difficult, we proceeded slowly. When shame is lost, all 
virtue is lost. "Stop!" said the German, in a tone of anger. "I 
do not mean," said the antiquary, "to intrude upon your Lordship." 
'' You are a tyrant," he answered, with a sigh. Happiness is found in 
^he arm-chair of dozing age, as well as in the sprightliness of the 
lance, or the animation of the chase. The first turkeys ever seen in 
Europe were taken there by Cabot, on his return from the voyage in 
vvhich he discovered Newfoundland. It is stated that two scientific 
gentlemen of France, having quarrelled about something, fought a 
duel in balloons. 



KEVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER X. 

291. Of what are words signs? Define thought. What is a sen- 
tence? What is the subject of a sentence? the predicate ? What is the 
copula? the attribute? the grammatical subject? the grammatical predi- 
cate? the logical subject? the logical predicate? How may the gram- 
matical subject be modified? the grammatical predicate? What is a 
proposition? Give an example. What is a simple sentence? Give an 
example. 

292. What is a leading proposition? Give an example. What is 
a claiise ? Give an example. What is a complex sentence ? Give an 
exatnf)le. 293. What is a member? What is a compound sentence? 
Give an example and name the members. Illustrate the difference between 
members, clauses, and leading propositions. 294. What is a phrase? 
What is an adjunct? Illustrate by examples the difference between phrases 
and adjuncts. 295. What is an element? How may elements be classi- 
fied? 

Name the principal kinds of clauses. 296. What is a substantive 
clause? How may substantive clauses be used ? Give examples. 297. Of 
what are quotations a part? What is a direct quotation? Give an exam- 
ple. What is an indirect quotation ? Give an example. How are quota- 
tions uitroduced ? How are quoted questions introduced ? What are sub- 
stantive clauses used to denote ? 298. What is an adjective clause ? How 
are adjective clauses introduced? 299. What is an adverbial clause? 
Give examples. Name the classes of adverbial clauses ? How are adver- 
bial clauses of place introduced ? Give an example. How are adverbial 
clauses of time introduced? Give an example. How are adverbial 
clauses of manner introduced? Give an example. How are adverbial 
clauses of cause introduced? Give an example. How is the relation 
11 



162 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

of cause generally expressed? How are adverbial clauses of condition 
introduced ? Give an example. How are adverbial clauses of intensity 
introduced ? Give an example. 

300. Name tbe kinds of phrases. What is a substantive phrase? 
Give an example. How may substantive phrases be used ? Give exam- 
ples. What is an adjective phrase? Give an example. What is an ad- 
verbial phrase? Give an example. What are independent expressions ? 
Give examples. What words are used independently? 

301. What are conti-acted sentences? How may they be analyzed? 
How may they be classified ? 302., What parts of speech are not modi- 
fied by other words ? 303. By what may a noun be modified ? a pronoun ? 
304. A verb or participle? 305. An adjective? 306. An adverb? 307. 
A preposition ? Give examples. Give the forms for parsing. Give the 
rules for analysis. Give the forms for analysis. Analyze according to the 
models the sentences : — I. Large trees of the forest grow rapidly in sum- 
mer. II. You will depart with but a small retinue, said the baronet. III. 
1 thought that Titus was your friend. IV. A soft answer turneth away 
wrath ; but grievous words stir up anger. 



THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 
Rule I. Apposition. 
A noun or pronoun annexed to another noun or pronoun, and 
denoting the same person or thing, is put, by apposition, in the same 
case : as, " Paul the apostle." " Ye ineii of Rome." 

Rule II. Subject-Nominative. 
The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case ; as, " He 
loves." " / rule." 

Rule JII. Subject op the Infinitive. 
The infinitive mode sometimes has a subject in the objective 
case ; as, " I believe the sun to be the centre of the solar system." 
** I know him to be a man of veracity." 

Rule IV. Substantive in the Predicate. 
A noun or pronoun in the predicate after an intransitive verb, 
an/1 the passive of certain transitive verbs, is in the same case as the 
subject, when both words refer to the same person or thing; as, "He 
has become a, poet." " He was made king." 



THE EULES OF SYNTAX.' 163 

Rule V. Vekb akd Subject. 
A verb agrees with its subject-nominative in person and number; 
as, " I am." " He walks." 

Rule VI. Singular Nominatives taken togethee. 

Two or more subject-nominatives, singular, connected by and 
expressed or understood, generally require a plural verb ; as, 
*' Charles, Thomas, and George are brothers/' *' Charles, Thomas, 
George, are brothers. 

Rule VII. Singular Nominatives taken separately. 

Two or more subject-nominatives, singular, connected by or or 
nor, require a singular verb ; as, "Ambition or pride controls him." 

Rule VIII. Collective Nouns. 

A collective noun used as a subject-nominative takes a verb in 
the singular or plural, according as the noun denotes unity or plu- 
rality ; as, " The class was large," " My people do not consider." 

Rule IX. Possessive Case. 

A noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a noun denoting 
a different person or thing, is put in the possessive ; as, Noah's ajrk ; 
Peter's wife's mother ; your house ; their prayers. 

Rule X. Objective after Verbs and Prepositions. 

The object of a transitive verb or a preposition is put m the ob- 
jective case; as, " The sun, imparting warmth to the ground, renders 
it fertile." 

Rule XI. Objective op Time, &c. 

Nouns that denote time, quantity, measure, distance, value, or 
direction!, are often put in the objective case without a preposition; 
as, " He is ten years old." " The rule is a foot in length." " She is 
worth a hundred dollars." " The ship sailed south." 

Rule XII. Two Objectives. 

The verbs asJc, teach, call, allow, make, constitute, cost, charge, and 
some others, frequently govern two nouns in the objective ; as, " He 
asked 7ne a question." " God called the Jirmament Heaven." "Nature 
made Milton a genius." "They elected him clerk." "It cost me 
much labor." " He chai'ged 7ne a dollar for the book." 



164 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule XIII. Substantive and Participle. 
A noun or pronoun modified by a participle, and not dependent 
for its case on any other word, is put in the nominative absolute ; as, 
" The oration having been delivered, the assembly was dismissed." 
** Tarquinius reigning, Pythagoras came into Italy." " Thou being 
my guide, I do not fear." 

Rule XIV. Objects addressed. 
Nouns and pronouns denoting objects addressed, or used in ex- 
clamations, or without grammatical dependence on other words, are 
put in the nominative absolute ; as, " Welcome, stranger I " " Oh ! 
the morals of the day ! " " St. George and victory ! " 

Rule XV. Pronouns. 
Pronouns agree with their antecedents, or with the words for 
which they stand, in person, number, and gender; as, " Robert 
broke his knife." " Men often destroy themselves." " Thou who 
speakest art the man." 

Rule XVI. Adjective and Substantive. 
An adjective belongs to the noun or pronoun whose meaning it 
qualifies or limits ; as, " a sour apple ; " " it is sour." 

Rule XVII. Pronominal Adjectives. 

Pronominal adjectives belong to the nouns which they limit, or 
are used alone as pronouns; as, this man, these men, both men, these 
think, both come. 

Rule. XVHI. An or A, The. 
The definitive adjective an or a is used before nouns in the singu- 
lar only; the is used before nouns in both numbers; as, a man, the 
man, the men. 

Rule XIX. The Infinitive. 
A verb in the infinitive mode generally limits the meaning of a 
verb, noun, or adjective ; as, " 1 hope to succeed." " Have a desire 
to improve." " She is anxious to hear." 

Rule XX. The Infinitive, without the Sign. 
When the verbs bid, dare [meaning venture], hear, feel, make, need, 
tee, in the active voice, or let, in either the active or the passive, 



THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 165 

are followed by an infinitive, the sign to is omitted before it; as, 
"You bid me come [not to coTne\." "I saw him fall [not to fall].'* 
" He durst do anything/' " They let me recite." " The curtain was 
let fall." 

KULE XXI. Participles used as Adjectives. 
Participles belong to nouns or pronouns which they limit or modify; 
as, " I heai* the birds singing." 

EXILE XXII. Pakticiples used as Nouns. 

Participles used as nouns have the construction of nouns, while 
they are modified in the same way and govern the same case as the 
verbs from which they are formed ; as, "I am in favor of giving him 
the situation." 

EULE XXIII. The Subjunctive. 

The subjunctive mode is used to express future contingency ; also, 
after the conjunctions lest and that annexed to a command, and after 
that denoting a wish ; as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." 
*' Sin no more, lest a worse thing come upon thee." " See that thou 
reform." " Oh ! that I were at home ! " 

EULE XXIV. Use op the Tenses. 
In using verbs, difi'erent tenses should not be confounded, nor 
should any tense be employed except in such connections as are con- 
sistent with the time it denotes. 

EULE XXV. Adverbs. 

Adverbs generally modify verbs; participles, adjectives, and other 
adverbs ; as, " We seldom see very old men walking rapidly ; they are 
too easily tired." 

EULE XXVI. Prepositions 

Prepositions show the relations of things ; as, "From Boston, we 
proceeded by railroad to Portland." 

EULE XXVII. Conjunctions. 
Conjunctions connect single words, adjuncts, clauses, members, and 
sentences; as, "He reads, or writes." " I sought the Lord, and he 
heard me." 

EULE XXVIII. Interjections. 
Inteijections have neither governing power nor dependence on 
other words. 



166 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 



CHAPTER XI. 

THE RULES OF SYNTAX 

309. "Words combined in sentences bear different re- 
lations to each other. 

Some words agree with others in certain accidents, as, / am, yt/u are. 
Am is first person, singular number, because its subject I ts first person 
singular. Are is second person, plural number, because its subject you is 
second plural. These are cases of agi'eement. 

Some words govern others, — that is, require them to be put in a cer- 
tain part. Hove her ; her is the objective case, governed by the transitive 
verb lace. Do it for me ; me is the objective case, governed by the preposi- 
tion for. These are cases of government. 

310. Syntax is that department of grammar which 
treats of the agreement, government, and arrangement 
of words in sentences. 

311. To determine the agreement, government, and 
arrangement of words in sentences, we have certain 
rules, known as the Rules of Syntax. 

We shall consider the Rules of Syntax in turn, and give exercises nuder 
them in anah'sis and parsing, as well as for correction. Particular atten- 
tion should be paid to these exercises by those who wish to speak and write 
con-ectly. In parsing apply the rules, and in coiTecting the false 8>T3tax 
give the reasons for making changes. 

Rule I. Apposition. 

312. A noun or pronoun annexed to another noun 
or pronoun, and denoting the same person or thing, is 
put, by apposition, in the same case; as, "Paul the 
apostle;'^'' "ye men of Rome." 

Apostle is annexed to Paul^ and denotes the same person; it is there- 
fore said to be in apposition with Paul,, and agrees with it in case. — Men is 
annexed to ?/e, and denotes the same persons; it is therefore put, by appo- 
sition, in the same case as ye. 



APPOSITION. 167 

Remarks. 
813. The noun or pronoun in apposition defines, describes, or e^xplains 
the one to which it is annexed, and always stands in the same part of the 
sentence as the latter, either subject or predicate. If two nouns denote 
the same thing, but stand the one in the subject and the other in the pred- 
icate, they are not said to be in apposition. " Kepler was called the legis- 
lator of the heavens." Legislator refers to the same person as Kepler^ but 
is not in apposition with it, because the one is in the subject of the sentence 
and the other in the predicate. 

314. A noun in apposition is frequently connected with the one to 
which it is annexed by the conjunction as ; as, " My father intended to 
devote me as the tithe of his sons." 

315. A preposition is sometimes introduced before the modifying noun, 
in which case the latter ceases to be in apposition; as, " the city of Boston;^'' 
" the title of king." 

316. A noun sometimes stands in apposition with a verb in the infini- 
tive, a phrase, a clause, or the leading proposition of a sentence ; as, " To 
travel comfortably, a very necessary thing in my case, was impossible." 
" The eldest son was always brought up to that employment, a custom 
which he and my father followed." 

317. In like manner, a verb in the infinitive, a phrase, or a clause, is 
sometimes put in apposition with a noun preceding it; as, " My motion, 
that the whole subject should be laid upon the table, prevailed." 

318. When two nouns denoting the same object come together in the 
possessive case, the sign is omitted after the first; as, ^^ John the Baptist's 
head." 

319. A noun in apposition is sometimes used without the possessive 
sign, to limit a noun or pronoun in the possessive case; as, " His office as 
Judge must be responsible." In this sentence. Judge refers to his, and agrees 
with it in the possessive case, the sign of the possessive being omitted. 

320. A noun in apposition with two or more nouns, is put in the 
plural; as, " Eomulus and Eemus, the grandsons of Numitor." 

321. A pronominal adjective used as a pronoun may be put in apptv 
eition in the singular number with a plural noun or pronoun; as, " They 
mourned each for his mate." " They dislike each other." " They play 
with one another." 

The last two sentences show the mode of expressing a reciprocal ac- 
tion. The former of the two is equivalent to " They each dislike the 
other." Each is in apposition with they in the nominative case; other is in 
the objective case governed by the verb dislike. The latter of the two sen- 
tences is equivlaent to " They play one with another." One is in the 
nominative case, in apposition with they ; another is in the objective, gov- 
erned by the preposition wiHi, 



168 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Analysis and Parsing, 

Model. — " My dog Fido is sick." Fido is a proper nonn, thircl, sin 
gular, masculine, nominative; put, by apposition, in the same case as dog^ 
according to tbe Rule, " A noun or pronoun annexed to another noun or 
pronoun, and denoting the same person or thing, is put, by apposition, in 
the same case." 

Herschel, the astronomer, discovered the planet Uranus. Wash- 
ington, the commander-in-chief of the American army, was bom near 
the banks of the Potomac. It can be found at Jones the book- 
seller's shop. Webster, a dramatic poet of the seventeenth century, 
was clerk of the parish of St. Andrew. The Tippecanoe, a rivei 
of Indiana, is rendered famous by a battle between the Americans 
and Indians. I dined with him at our friend Davies's. Exhort 
one another daily. You are too humane and considerate ; things 
which few people can be charged with. I am pleased with your 
appointment as chaplain. Righteousness and peace have kissed each 
other. 

To he Corrected. 

GENERAL FORM FOR CORRECTING FALSE SXNTAX. 

1. Read the sentence. 

2. Correct the sentence. 

3. State the correction. 

4. Give the reason for the correction. 

5. Parse the words changed. 

Model. — " The prime minister of Augustus was Mascenas, him who 
was spoken of by Virgil." The sentence should read. The ■prime minister 
of Augtistus was Mcecenas, he who was spoJcen of by Virgil. Him should be 
changed to he. It is in the objective case, and should be in the nominative, 
to be in the same case with Mcecenas, with which it is in apposition, accord- 
ing to Rule I., " A noun or pronoun annexed," &c. 

He is a personal pronoun, thus declined: Sing. — Nom. he ; Poss. his; 
Obj. him: Plural — Nom. they; Poss. theirs; Obj. them: it is found in the 
third person, singular number, and is in the nominative case, because the 
noun McEcenas is, with which it is in apposition, according to Rule I., " A 
noun or pronoun annexed," &c. 

They killed the chief, he who was at the fort yesterday. The 
chief is here, him who was at the fort yesterday. Let us crown her 
again, she who has so often been our queen of May. Relieve us, we 



SUBJECT OF THE INFINITIYE. 169 

who once relieved you. Sucli was the career of Bums, he who delight- 
ed a whole nation with his songs. Burns is still remembered as him 
who delighted a whole nation with his songs. 

Rule II. Subj3et-Ii"ommative. 

322. The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative 
case. 

Remarhs. 

323. In declarative sentences, the subject-nominative usually precedes 
the verb ; as, ^-He reads." " The rain falls." In interrogative and im- 
perative sentences, it follows the verb, or in compound tenses the first 
auxiliary; as, " Believest thou this?" "Who art ihouV^ "Has Coesar 
triumphed ? " In exclamatory sentences, the subject may either precede 
or follow the verb ; as. " How slowly yon tiny vessel sails ! " or, " How 
slowly sails yon tiny vessel! " 

324. The subject-nominative follows the verb or its first auxiliary 
when a supposition is expressed without the conjunction if; as, " Had / 
been there, this would not have happened." It also follows the verb in 
declarative sentences when there, here, then, neither, nor, &c., precedes; as, 
" There is an old house.'''' " Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it." 

Rule III. Subject of the Infinitive. 

325. The infinitive mode sometimes has a subject in 
the objective case; as, "I believe the sun to be the cen- 
tre of the solar system." " I know him to be a man of 

veracity." 

RemarTcs. 

326. This form of expression is equivalent to a subordinate clause in- 
troduced by that ; " I believe him to be dishonest [that is, that he is dis^ 



327. The infinitive with its subject is sometimes introduced hj for; 
as, '^For him to die was gain." In such expressions, the infinitive and the 
words connected with it constitute a substantive phrase which is used as 
the subject of the verb. For him to die is the subject of was. 

Rule IV. Substantive in the Predicate. 

328. A noun or pronoun in the predicate, after an 
intransitive verb, and the passive of certain transitive 



170 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

verbs, is in ttie same case as the subject, when both words 
refer to the same person or thing ; as "-2e has become a 
poety "-2e was made kingP 

Remarks. 

329. This rule applies chiefly to nouns in the predicate after the intran- 
sitive verbs to be, to become, to grow, to remain, to seem, to appear, and after 
such transitive verbs in the passive voice as signify to name, to render, to 
make, to esteem, to choose, to appoint, and the like. 

330. A noxin in the predicate, according to this rule, may be in either 
the nominative or the objective case; for it must be in the same case as 
the subject, and we have just learned (Rule II.) that a finite verb has a 
subject in the nominative, while (Rule III.) a verb in the infinitive mode 
sometimes has a subject in the objective. "He has. become a knave;" 
knave, standing in the predicate after the intransitive verb has become, must 
be in the same case as its subject, he, — that is, nominative. " I know him 
to be a knave; " here, knave, standing in the predicate after the infinitive 
to be, is in the same case as its subject him, — that is, objective. — " It was 
me; " it, the subject of the verb was, being in the nominative case, me, 
standing in the predicate should be in the same case, and must therefore 
be changed to /. " They suspected it to be me; " here, ?«e is right; stand- 
ing in the predicate after the infinitive to be, it must be in the same case as 
its subject it, — that is, objective. 

331. Participles being parts of the verb, this rule applies to them also. 
A noun standing after a participle of an intransitive verb or a passive parti- 
ciple of a transitive verb, is in the same case as the noun or pronoun that 
the participle modifies ; as, " Being a soldier, i could not resist the call." 
Soldier, standing after the present participle of the intransitive verb to 6e, 
is in the nominative case, because /, which the participle being modifies, is 
nominative. 

332. An exception, however, is found in sentences in which the parti- 
ciple is preceded by a noun or pronoun in the possessive; as " He is angry 
with me on account of my being a. friend to his enemy." Here, since my 
precedes the participle being in the possessive case, we would expect to find 
fnend in the possessive after it, instead of which it is in the nominative. 
071 account of my being a friend is an abridged expression equivalent to be- 
cause I am a friend, in which friend is in the nominative case. The fol- 
lowing is a parallel construction: " I ain suspicious of his being a rogue^'' — 
that is, Ouit he is a rogue. 

In the abridged form, the entire expression, my being a friend, or hi$ 
being a rogue, is the object of the preposition; but the words friend and rogue 



SUBSTANliVE IN THE PREDICATE. 171 

may be regarded as in the same case in which they would be in the una- 
bridged form, — that is, the nominative. 

The construction of a noun after the verbs to &e, to become, &c., wheu 
together they form a substantive clause, may be explained in a similar way. 
In the sentence, " To be a learned man is no easy attainment," to be a 
learned man is the subject of is ; and the noun man may be considered as in 
the nominative case after to be. 

333. A verb in tlie infinitive, a substantive clause, or phrase, is some- 
times used as the predicate-nominative; as, " To steal is to break the law^ 
" The question is lokether loe shall go w remain.'''' 

334. The usual order is, first the subject, then the verb, and then the 
predicate-nominative. In some sentences, however, this order is reversed; 
as, " Who is he f " Occasionally we find both the subject and the predicate- 
nominative before the verb ; as, ''■Monster as thou art, 1 will yet obey thee:" 
or, both after it ; as, "Art th&ii he ? " "Am / a traitor ? " 

Analysis and Parsing. 

Clement was the name of many popes. A coronation is a solemn 
inauguration of a monarch. The diamond is the most valuable gem. 
The youth will become a poet. Stephen died a martyr to his faith. 
What is the hour 1 We suspected him to be an impostor. Historians 
represent Brutus as having been an ardent lover of liberty. 

Washington is called the father of his country. Napoleon Bona- 
parte, a native of Corsica, was styled Emperor of France. In England, 
a kind of trident is used for catching eels, called an eel-spear. Cicero 
and Antonius were elected consuls. I am tired of being an idler. I 
cannot bear the thought of being an exile from my country. 

To he Corrected. 
I that speak unto thee am him. It was not him that said it. It 
cannot be him. Whom are you *? Whom do men say that I am ? 
Who do they represent me to be '? I do not think it is him. Did you 
. believe it to be he ? I did not think of its being him. If I were him, 
I would not tolerate it. I could not believe it was her. I could not 
believe it to be she. 

Rule V. Verb and Subject. 

335. A verb agrees with its subject-nominative in 
person and number ; as, " I am." " He walJcs^^ 



172 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Remarhs. 

336. A snbstantive clause, phrase, or a verb in the infinitive, may be 
used as the subject of a verb ; as, " That falsehood is met with more frequent- 
ly than truth, cannot be denied." " To plow is hard work." 

337. An intransitive verb between two nominatives of different num- 
bers or persons commonly agrees with the one that precedes it ; as, " His 
meat was locusts and wild honey." Sometimes, however, it is made to 
agree with the one that follows : as, " The wages of sin is death." 

338. The verbs need and dare, when intransitive, are sometimes used 
in the plural form with a singular nominative; as, She need [instead of 
needs] not go." " He dare [instead of dares'] not repeat those words." 

339. As regards, as concerns, as respects, as apjiears, as follows. — In 
these common expressions, as is an adverb; regards, concerns, respects, ap- 
pears, and follows are impersonal verbs, the pronoun it being understood 
before them. Sometimes it is expressed; as, " The prisoner was not there, 
as it appears from the following evidence." 

340. The verbs JzeeJ and rejmVe are sometimes used before their sub- 
jects with a passive signification in the active voice; as, There required 
haste in the business." " There needs no argument for proving," &c. In 
such expressions, there is an introductorj' expletive. Haste and argument 
are the subjects with which the verbs agree, and required and need are 
used with a passive signification. Expressed in the usual way, these sen- 
tences would read, " Haste was required in the business." " No argument 
is needed for proving," &c. — '■'■There wanted not men to fight in such a 
cause," is a parallel construction, equivalent to " Men were not want- 
ing," &c. 

341. The verb that agrees with the nominative case is sometimes omit- 
ted; as, " To whom the monarch; " replied is omitted. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

Varro was esteemed a learned man, but Aristides was called just. 
Titus has been called the delight of the human race. Shall a barbarian 
have these cultivated fields ? To see the sun is pleasant. Robert need 
not practice such economy. To excel in knowledge is honorable ; but 
to be ignorant is base. That you may enjoy felicity is my fervent 
prayer. Promising, and not performing, is an evidence of insincerity. 
Methinks this single consideration will be suflBcient to extinguish all 
envy. 

The first impression made by the proceedings of the American 
Congress on our people in general, was greatly in our favor. Me- 
thought I was admitted into a long, spacious gallery. I am indiflferent 



SINGULAR NOMINATIVES TAKEN TOGETHER. 173 

as regards my personal security. She dare not remain. As appears 
from the evidence, he is guilty of an atrocious crime. Let there be no 
strife betwixt me and thee. There wanted not proof of the conspiracy. 
" ' Marry/ says * I, 'if it be so, I am very weU rewarded for all the 
pains I have been at.' " — Addison. 

To be Corrected. 
The clouds has dispersed. The rivers has overflowed their banks. 
There was three Indians in the company. A variety of blessings 
have been conferred upon us. In piety and virtue consist the happi- 
ness of man. What names has the planets 1 There follows from 
thence these plain consequences. There is men who never reason. 
The smiles that encourage severity of judgment hides malice and in- 
sincerity. So, thinks I, I will remain. Some foggy days, and about 
ten or twelve days in January, was cold and icy. How does your plans 
succeed? What signifies good opinions when our practice is bad? 
There was more impostors than one. The virtue of these men and 
women are indeed exemplary. Too great a variety of amusements 
create disgust. 

Rule "VT. Singular Wominatives taken together. 

342. Two or more subject-nominatives, singular, 
connected by and, expressed or understood, generally 
require a plural verb ; as, " Charles, Thomas, and 
George are brothers." "Charles, Thomas, George, are 
brothers." 

343. Subject-nominatives connected by and are said to be taken to- 
gether; but when preceded by each, every, no, and not, even though con- 
nected by and, they are taken separately. Singular subjects taken 
separately require a verb in the singular; as, "No man, no woman, says 
this with truth." " Every officer and every soldier claims a superiority." 

344. In like manner, singular subjects connected by and also, as well 
as, and other expressions that serve to distinguish them emphatically, take 
a verb in the singular; as, "Ambition, and also the safety of the state, 
was concerned." " The nephew, as well as the uncle, has trampled on the 
rights of his countrymen." 

* Irregular expressions are occasionally met with, which usage sanc- 
tions rather than analogy; such as, ^'- says /," '"'■thinks /," &c. These, 
however, are ungrammatical, and should not be used. 



174 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

345. A singular subject-nominative, connected with another noun by 
with, in company with, together with, &c., requires a singular verb, though 
the idea of plurality is conveyed in the logical subject; as, "The king, 
with the lords and commons, constitutes [not constitute] an excellent govern- 
ment." Here, lords and commons, being the objects of the preposition withy 
are in the objective case; constitutes agrees with king alone, and must be in 
the singular number. 

346. When singular subject-nominatives connected by and refer to 
the same person or thing, the verb must be singular ; as, " The wife and 
mother [meaning one person who is both wife and mother] kneels in 
prayer." 

347. When several singular subject-nominatives connected by and are 
separated by the introduction of the verb after the first, the verb is put in 
the singular, agreeing with the first and being understood with the rest; 
as, " Your beauty captivates me, your wit, and your amiability." 

348. If two subject-nominatives connected by and not, and also, or as 
toellas, are of difi'erent numbers, the verb agrees with the first; as, " Dili- 
gent industry, and not mean savings, produces honorable competence." — 
If subject- nominatives connected by and are of different persons, the verb 
prefers the second person to the third, and the first to both the second and 
third; as, "Thou [2d person], James [3d person], and I [1st person], are 
attached [1st person] co our country." " Thou [2d] and he [3d] shared 
[2d] it between you." 

349. Under this rule, two or more infinitives, clauses, or phrases used * 
as subject-nominatives, require a plural verb; as, "To steal and lie are 
base." " Whether capital punishment should be abolished, and whether 
the election of judges by the people is expedient, are open questions." 

Analysis and Parsing. 

[Parsing- Model. — Tranquillity and love dwell here. 

Tranquillity is a common noun, third, singular, neuter; nominative case, 
because it is one of the subjects of the verb dwell; according to the Rule, 
*' The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case." 

And is a conjunction, connecting the words tranquillity and love. 

Love is a common noun, third, singular, neuter; nominative case, be- 
cause it is one of the subjects of the verb dwell; according Xo the Rule, 
" The subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case." 

Dwell is an intransitive verb; the principal parts are dwell, dwelt or 
dwelled, dwelt, dwelled; irregular, active voice; indicative, present, third, 
plural, and agrees with its subject-nominatives tranquillity and love; accord- 
to the Rule, "Iwo or more subject-uominatives, singular, connected by 
and," &o. 



SINGULAR NOMINATIVES TAKEN SEPARATELY. 175 

Here is an adverb of place, and modifies the verb dwell. 

According to the above model, repeat the rules whenever they apply 
to the parsing.] 

Reason and truth constitute intellectual gold. Riches, honors, 
and pleasures steal away the heart from religion. You and I look 
alike. The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, 
affect the mind with sensations of astonishment. He and I are foes. 
His ready wit, together with his varied acquirements, makes him 
an agreeable companion. The useful arts improved by science, and 
science itself improved by philosophy, confer power on civilized and 
instructed man, and enable him to triumph over his fellows and ovei 
nature. 

To be Corrected. 

[The reason for the correction should be given in every instance.] 
Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. Time and 
tide waits for no man. Patience and diligence, like faith, removes 
mountains. The forehead, the eyes, and the countenance often 
deceives. Castor and Pollux were seen to fight on horseback. To 
fish and hunt is pleasant. The following treatise, with those which 
accompany it, were written many years ago. His wisdom, not his 
riches, produce esteem. Not wealth, not rank, not arrogance, constitute 
a gentleman. My uncle, with his son, were in fown yesterday. That 
able scholar and grammarian have been refuted. The discomfiture 
and slaughter was very great. Temperance as well as obedience, were 
enjoined. 

Forth in the pleasing spring 
Thy beauty walk, thy tenderness, and love. 

Bule VII. Singular Nominatives taken separately. 

350. Two or more subject-nominatives, singular, 
connected by or or nor, require a singular verb; as, 
" Ambition or pride controls him." 

351. If one of the subject-nominatives thus connected is plural and the 
rest are singular, the plural nominative should be placed next to the verb, 
and the verb should agree with it in the plural; as, " Neither poverty nor 
riches were injurious to him." 

352. If the subject-nominatives thus connected are of different persons, 
the pi-onoun of the first person is placed nearest to the verb, and the verb 



176 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

agrees with it; as, "Neither thou, he, nor I am tall." If, of two subject- 
nominatives thus connected, one is second person and the other third, the 
latter is placed nearest to the verb, and the verb agrees with it; as, 
" Either thou or he is mistaken." 

Such sentences, however, as those just given as examples, although 
correct, are inelegant. The nominatives should be separated, the verb used 
with the first, and either repeated or understood with the rest. " Neither 
are you tall, nor he, nor I." '* Either thou art mistaken or he is." 

Analysis and Parsing. 
Ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake. Neither the 
captain nor the sailors were acquainted with the coast. Death or some 
worse misfortune soon divides them. History or geography is a proper 
study for youth. Intense heat or extreme cold is painful. Man's 
happiness or misery is in a great measure put into his own hands. 
One or both of the witnesses were present. Thou mayst go, or he, but 
not both. 

To he Corrected, 

James or Charles were in fault. Neither authority nor analogy 
support such an opinion. Either ability or inclination wer0 wanting. 
Neither the father nor the son were saved. Neither the general nor 
the soldiers was charged with cowardice. Have the dictionary, the 
spelling-book, or the grammar been found ? Has the dictionaries, 
the spelling-book, or the grammar been found ? No tyrant or robber 
enjoy peaceful sleep. To lie or even to deceive are inconsistent with 
honesty. I or thou art wrong. He or thou shouldst go. Robert or 
thou is the offender. Were this philosopher and poet or his critic in 
the wrong ? 

Rule VIII. Collective Nouns. 

353. A collective noun used as a subject-nominative 
takes a verb in the singular or plural, according as the 
noun denotes unity or plurality ; as, " The class was 
large." ^^M.j people do not consider." 

Remarks. 

354. A collective noun, though in the singular number, denotes a 
body of individuals. When an action or state is affirmed of the whole as 
a body, the verb is singular; as, '* The regiment was cut up [that is, the 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 177 

whole body, not each of the individuals composing it]." TMien it is a& 
firmed of each individual composing the body, the verb is plural ; as, " The 
peasantry wear no shoes [that is, the individual peasants]. In doubtful 
cases, use the plural; as, " The people have spoken." 

355, When the definitive this or that precedes the noun, the verb must 
be singular; as, " This people has spoken." 

Analysis and Parsing. 
A part mount their horses. A great multitude hurl stones and darts. 
The court has just ended its session. In France, the middle class make 
use of wooden shoes. Why do the heathen rage and the people imagine 
a vain thing ? The nobility are the pillars that support the throne. 
A company of troops was detached. The whole party are in favor of 
the measure. Does this party favor the measure ? The majority were 
in favor of remaining. 

To be Correct&i. 

The British Parliament are composed of king, lords, and com 
mons. A council were called. The crowd were very great. That 
party were in error. This company are handsomely uniformed. 
The court of Rome were not without solicitude. The French cavalry 
were more formidable than the infantry. Congress meet on the first 
Monday of December. Are the senate or the lower house to consider 
the question first ? 



REVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XI. — RULES I.-VIH. 

309. What is said of the relations of words combined in sentences? 
Give an example of agreement. Of government. 310. What is syntax? 
311. What is the use of the rules of syntax? 

312. Repeat Rule I. Show its application. 313. What does the noun 
or pronoun iu apposition do V How does it stand, as regards the leading 
noun or pronoun? 314. How are the two nouns frequently connected? 
315. In what case does the limiting noun cease to be in apposition? 316. 
With what does a noun sometimes stand in apposition? 317. What some- 
times stands in apposition with a noun? 318. State the principle relating 
to the omission of the sign of the possessive case? 319. In what other case 
is the sign of the possessive omitted? 320. In what number is a noun that 
stands in apposition with two or more nouns? 321. State the principle re- 
lating to a pronominal adjective used as a pronoun. Explain such con- 
structions as they dislike each other. 
12 



178 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

322. Repeat Rule II. 323. How does the subject-nominative stand 
in declarative sentences ? In interrogative and imperative sentences ? In 
exclamatory sentences ? 324. In what cases does the subject-nominative 
follow the verb ? 

325. Repeat Rule III. 326. To what is this form of expression equiv- 
alent? 327. By what is the infinitive with its subject sometimes intro- 
duced ? 

328. Repeat Rule IV. 329. To what does this rule chiefly apply? 
330. According to this rule, in what case may a noun in the predicate be ? 
Give examples. 331. In what case is a noun that stands after the parti- 
ciple of an intransitive verb ? Give an example. 332. What exception is 
there to the principle just stated? How is the nominative case after the 
participle accounted for ? What parallel construction is explained in the 
same way? 333. What is sometimes used as the predicate-nominative? 
334. In most cases, what is the relative position of subject, verb, and pred- 
icate-nominative ? How is this order sometimes changed ? 

335. Repeat Rule V. 336. What may be used as the subject of a 
verb? 337. State the principle that applies to an intransitive verb between 
two nominatives of different numbers. 338. How are the verbs need and 
c^ar-e sometimes used ? 339. Explain such expressions as as regards. 340. 
How are the verbs need and require sometimes used ? 341. What is some- 
times omitted? 

342. Repeat Rule VI. 343. When are subject-nominatives said to be 
taken together, and when to be taken separately ? What must be the num- 
ber of a verb agreeing with singular subjects taken separately? 344. State 
the principal applying to singular subjects connected by and aho. 345. 
What is the principle relating to a singular subject-nominative connected 
with another noun by with ? 346. What is the principle relating to sin- 
gular subject-nominatives referring to the same object? 347. What is the 
principle relating to singular subject-nominatives separated by the verb? 
348. When the subject-nominatives are of different numbers and persons, 
which does the verb prefer ? 349. What, used as subject-nominatives, re- 
quire a plural verb ? 

350. Repeat Rule VII. 351. What principle applies when one of the 
Bubject-nominatives is plural and the rest are singular? 352. When the sub- 
ject-nominatives are of different persons, how must they be arranged, 
and with which must the verb agree? What more elegant form is sug- 
gested ? 

353. Repeat Rule VIII. 354. When is the noun said to denote unity, 
and when plurality? In doubtful cases, what number should the verb 
be ? 355. What number is the verb when this or that precedes the subject- 
nominative ? 



POSSESSIVE CASE. 179 

Eule IX. Possessive Case. 

356. A noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of 
a noun denoting a different person or thing is put in the 
possessive ; as, N'oaNs ark ; Peter's wife's mother ; your 
house ; their prayers. 

Remarks. 

857. The limited noun is often omitted when it can be easily supplied ; 
as, " We dined at Garrick's [that is, Garrich's hovse]." " Paradise Lost" 
is a work of Milton's [that is, of Milton's wor*A;s]." 

358. When two or more nouns in the possessive, standing together, 
imply joint ownership, the sign of the possessive ('s) is generally omitted 
after all but the last; as, "Sanborn and Carter's bookstore." Sanborn 
and Carter's, limiting the meaning of bookstore, are both in the possessive ; 
but, since joint ownership is implied, the sign of the possessive is annexed 
only to the latter noun. 

When, on the other hand, separate ownership is implied, each noun 
takes the sign ; as, Cowper's, Thorason's, and Coleridge's works. 

359. When nouns denoting the same object stand together in the pos- 
sessive, the sign is annexed to the last only; as, '" Paul the apostle'' s jour- 
ney; " " at our friend Sir Kobert EzncMey's.''^ 

360. So, when an adjunct is very closely connected in sense with the 
noun which it modifies, forming with it, as it were, one compound term, 
the sign of the possessive is annexed to the noun in the adjunct, instead 
of the leading noun ; as, "the king of Great Britain's prerogative;" "the 
captain of the guard's house." In these expressions, Mng and captain are 
in the possessive case, governed by prerogative and house ; Great Biritain'a 
and guard's are in the objective case, governed by the preposition of. — A 
neat way of parsing such expressions is to take noun and adjunct together, 
and call the whole a substantive phrase ; as, hing of Great Britain's is a 
substantive phrase, third, singular, neuter, possessive, according to the 
Eule, " A noun or pronoun which limits the meaning of a noun," &c. 

361. In the case of possessives in apposition, if the limited word is 
omitted, the sign is annexed to the first, especially if it is modified by more 
than one word; as, " I dined at Walton's, an amiable and worthy man." 
" I left the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." 

362. The preposition of with the objective case is often equivalent to 
the possessive. " The advice of my father " means the same thing as " my 
father's advice." Since these constructions are equivalent, instead of re- 
peating either too often in a sentence, it is best to alternate them. It would 
be awkward to say either " Peter's wife's mother's sister " or " the sister of 



180 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

the mother of the wife of Peter; " we should say " the sister of Peter'8 
wife's mother." In like manner, hai'shness or obscurity is sometimes 
avoided by substituting the verb belong for the possessive case. " This farm 
belonged to my father and brother," is better than " This was my father 
and brother's farm." 

363. Avoid bringing in a clause between the limiting and the limited 
noun ; as, " They condemned the prodigal's, as he was called, extravagant 
conduct; " — it should be, " They condemned the extravagant conduct of 
the prodigal, as he was called." 

364. A noun or pronoun which precedes and limits a participle, or a 
clause containing one, is put in the possessive; as, "I insist upon these 
rules' being enforced." " We heard of your going away." " Much de- 
pends on the patienVs observing these rules." In such constructions, the 
participle retains its verbal properties, and may govern the objective case, 
or be modified by an adverb or adjunct, like the verb from which it is 
derived. This will be seen in the above examples. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

I asked for Baskerville's edition of Barclay's Apology. My ways 
are not thy ways. He accompanied me to St. Mary's Church. His 
lady was the daughter of Johnson's first schoolmaster. He patheti- 
cally described the parent's and the son's misfortune. I gave him an 
account of my having examined the chest of books which he had sent 
to me. There was also a book of De Foe's, and another of Dr. 
Mather's. 

This took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynolds's, the great 
painter. The manner of a young lady's employing herself usefully in 
reading will be the subject of another paper. Very little time was 
necessary for Johnson's concluding a treaty with the bookseller. Whose 
children deserve attention at my hands, if my own do not ? We have 
heard of our army's having been defeated. Smith Brothers and Thomp- 
son's stores are the handsomest in our town. The Emperor of Russia's 
proclamation has just reached his army. 

To be Corrected. 
Webster or Johnson's Dictionary. Washington and Taylor's 
courage. Bancroft or Prescott's History. Ferdinand's and Lsabella's 
reign. Hyde's, Lord's, and Duren's bookstore. Mr. Murphy mentioned 
Dr. Johnson having a design to publish an edition of Cowley, There 
is no danger of that complaint being made at present. The Bishop's 
of Landaff excellent works. I will not, for David's thy father's sake. 



( 



OBJECTIVE AFTER VERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 181 

Such was the stupid fellow's, as he was commonly regarded, prop- 
osition. This was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton. This property 
was my father's, my hrother's, and my uncle's wife's. A mother's ten- 
derness and a father's care are nature's gifts for man's advantage. The 
medicine was procured at Brown, the apothecary and chemist's. 

Btile X. Objective after Verbs and Prepositions. 

365. The object of a transitive verb or a preposition 
is put in the objective case ; as, " The sun, imparting 
warmth to the ground^ renders it fertile." 

This rule applies to the active participles of a transitive verb, as may 
be seen in the example given above. 

'Remarks. 

366. This rule applies to an objective. case after an intransitive verb 
lised transitively ; as, " Look danger in the face, and it will flee from you." 
-* We talked the lifmrs away." " Groves whose trees wept odorous gums^ 
intransitive verbs are frequently construed in this way with a notin of kin- 
dred signification to their own; as, " Let him die the death.'''' " He went 
dis way.'''' 

367. The objectives whom, which, and that should stand before the verb 
that governs them, and also before its subject: as, " whom ye seek; " " the 
story which he told." 

368. Transitive verbs in the active voice govern the objective case 
without the intervention of a preposition. Such expressions as the follow- 
ing are wrong: — "This allows of no trifling." "I do not wish for any 
more." The prepositions q/'and/br must be expunged. 

369. Two prepositions, or a transitive verb and a preposition, may be 
construed with the same object when obscurity or harshness does not 
insult; as, " Payment shall be made on or before the first of August." 

' He is studying, and bestowing much attention on, this subject." But such 
eonstractions are often oflFensive to the ear, and in that case should be 
Avoided; as, " She does not pay the slightest attention to, or rather she acts 
In open defiance of, my commands." " Take an interest in, and try to 
benefit, your friends." Such sentences are easily corrected: — " She does 
not pay the slightest attention to my commands, or rather she acts in open 
defiance of them." "Take an interest in _your friends, and try to benefit 
them." 

370. Prepositions governing the objective case are frequently omitted. 
1. To is generally omitted after near and like : as, " Near [io] me sat 

A Mexican general." " Like [to] the rest of the world." 



182 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

2. Of is sometimes omitted after worthy and unworthy ; as, " a "work 
worthy [q/"] his great genius; " " actions unworthy [o/*] his fair fame." 

3. To andybr are omitted when the noun or pronoun they govern is 
introduced between a transitive verb and its object; as, " Hand [to] the 
lady a chair." " Buy [for"] me a knife." *' Please to find \_for] me the 
place." 

4. Several objects connected by a conjunction generally have the pre- 
position expressed before the first only ; as, " The works of Milton and 
[o/*] Shakespeare are read with admiration and \with'\ delight." 

Analysis and Parsing. 

Disappointment depresses the heart of man. Eoolish pursuits de- 
light some persons. Coursing in its pebbly channel, the brook ran nec- 
tar. A variety of pleasing objects charms the eye. Those whom 
opulence has made proud, and whom luxury has corrupted, cannot 
relish the simple pleasures of nature. The President's speech is so im- 
portant to the public, that I know you will be anxious to see it as early 
as possible. I will resign my ofiice and remain with you. Her lips 
blushed deeper sweets. Some men would rather sleep the sleep of 
death, than live a life of idleness. He gave me an oraer to buy him a 
dozen grammars. 

To he Corrected. 

Who did they send ? He that is idle reprove. He invited my 
brother and I to examine his library. Ye hath he quickened. Who 
shall I call you ? He who committed the oifence, you should correct, 
not I who am innocent. He who is in fault I will chastise. Who 
shall I direct this letter to ? Who will yoii vote for ? He and they we 
know, but who are you 1 Lend to me your book, and I will give to 
you my pencil. I premise with a few remarks which the subject has 
suggested. Do not halt in, or give up, the race. He set his face 
against, and violently denounced, all innocent amusements. Sicily lies 
over against, and not far from, Italy. Will you accept of my gift ? 
Consider of it. 

Rxile XI. Objective of Time, &c. 

371. Nouns that denote time., quantity., measure., dis- 
tance., value., or direction., are often put in the objective 
case without a preposition; as, "He is ten years okl." 



TWO OBJECTIVES. 183 

« The rule is a/oo^ in length." " She is worth a hundred 
dollars?'' " The ship sailed south?'* 

Remarks. 

372. Tlae word home after come^ go, and other verbs of motion, is put 
in the objective case without the preposition to ; as, " My intention is to 
return home.'''' But if an adjective is introduced to qualify or limit home^ 
the preposition is used ; as, " My intention is to return to my home." 

373. Nouns that denote particular points of tim€ are generally used 
with a preposition, but not always ; as, " at that hour ; " " in the morning ; " 
" He arrived on Wednesday last; " " He arrived last Wednesday,'''' 

Analysis and Parsing. 
Congress has been in session three months. He was absent from 
his native country six years. They excavated a pit twenty feet in 
depth. One morning we walked out together. Wednesday, Nov. 1st, 
we left Paris. The storm burst upon us three leagues from land. They 
tra relied north, south, east, and west. The people looked this way and 
that way, but discovered no means of escape. A flatterer's praise is not 
woi fch a farthing, 

Bule XII. Two Objectives. 

374. The verbs ask, teach, call, allow, make, consti- 
tute, cost, charge, and some others, frequently govern two 
n« uns in the objective*; as, " He asked me a questionP 
*'God called the firm^ament Heaven?'' "Nature made 
Milton a genius.'''' " They elected hi7n cleric?'' " It cost 
me much labor?'' " He charged me a dollar for the 

book." 

Remarks. 

375. An infinitive, a substantive clause, or a phrase, is often used as 
one of the objectives; as, " He asked me to give him money." 

376. The direct object of a verb in the active voice becomes the sub- 
ject when the verb is changed to the passive voice ; as, " Columbus dis- 
covered America." *• America was discovered by Columbus." 

Verbs signifying to ash, to teach, &c., have two direct objects in the 
active voice, one of a person, the other of a thing; as, "He asked me a 
question." 

After the passive voice of these verbs either of these objects remains 



184 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

in the objective case; as, " I was asked a question," or, " A question was 
asked me." 

Verbs signifying to offer^ to promise, to give, &c., have two objects in the 
active voice, one dii'ect and the other indirect; as, " He offered me [indi- 
rect] a chair [direct]." When these verbs are used in the passive voice, 
the indirect object remains in the objective case; as, " A chair was offered 
me; " not, " I was offered a chair." 

"Verbs signifying to make, to choose, to constitute, &c., have two objects 
in the active voice, one direct, the other the object of effect; as, " They 
chose him [direct] king [object of effect]." After the passive of these 
verbs, the object of effect becomes the predicate-nominative; as," He was 
chosen king." 

Analysis and Parsing. 

In long journeys, ask your master leave to give ale to your horses. 
God called the light day, and the darkness He called night. While they 
promise themselves liberty, they themselves are the servants of corrup- 
tion. He fashioned it with a graving tool, after he had made it a 
molten calf. He allowed his son the third part of his inheritance. His 
son was allowed the third part of his inheritance. Simon he surnamed 
Peter. If the wicked offer you anything, beware how you accept it. 
A good situation has been offered him. 

Rule XIII. Substantive and Participle. 

377. A noun or pronoun modified by a participle, 
and not dependent for its case on any other word, is put 
in the nominative absolute ; as, " The oration having beeu 
delivered, the assembly was dismissed." " Tarquinius 
reigning, Pythagoras came into Italy." " Thou being my 
guide, I do not fear." 

Remarks. 

378. Adverbial phrases like the above are abridged expressions, equiv- 
alent to clauses introduced by after, while, when, if, since, or some other 
conjunctive adverb or conjunction. Thus, in the above examples, we may 
substitute the following clauses for the abridged expressions: " After the 
oration had been delivered;" " While Tarquinius was reigning;" "Since 
thou art my guide." 

379. The noun or pronoun in such expressions is sometimes omitted ; 
as, " Generally speaking [that is, we speaking generally], vice is wedded to 
misery." 



OBJECTS ADDEESSED. 185 

380. The participle is sometimes omitted; as, "The war over [that is, 
being over], Francis disbanded his army." 

Analysis and Parsing. 
[In parsing nouns or pronouns thus construed, call them nmninative 
absolute. Thus, in the first sentence below, We is a simple personal pro- 
noun, first, plural, masculine or feminine, nominatiye absolute ; according 
to the Eule, " A noun or pronoun modified by a participle," &c.] 

We being exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. Edwards 
walked along with us, I eagerly assisting to keep up the conversation. 
The sun rising, darkness disappears. The preliminaries being settled, 
we proceeded on our business. This done, we set out for Liverpool. 
Looking at it in the most favorable light, it was a disgraceful act. 
Danger once past, even the coward becomes brave. "Waterloo having 
proved fatal to his hopes. Napoleon could but retreat. 

Exercise in Construction. 

[In the following sentences, substitute for the clauses in italics equiva- 
lent clauses containing a participle and noun or pronoun in the nominative 
absolute. 

Model. — Whose gray top shall tremble as he descends. 
Whose gray top shall tremble, he descending.] 

While I and my partner were absent, everything went wrong. As 
the drought had destroyed the crops, apprehensions were entertained of a 
famine. Since he was the light of our household, we miss him exceedingly. 
No country can enjoy prosperity when a tyrant reigns. Since he and I 
were at sword's points, there was a general constraint on the company. 
If you except us, there are no lawyers in the town. After war had been 
proclaimed, an engagement soon took place. When schools are plaity, 
there is comparatively little ignorance. When she Jied, Augustus socai 
gained the battle. 

Kule XIV. Objects Addressed. 

381. !N"ouns and pronouns denoting objects addressed, 
or used in exclamations, or without grammatical depen- 
dence on other words, are put in the nominative absolute ; 
as, "Welcome, stranger ! '''' "Oh! the morals of the 
day!" ''St. George and victory!'' "The boy,— 0}i\ 
wbere was he ? " 



186 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

382. The simple personal pronoun of the first person, nsed in excla- 
mations, instead of always standing in the nominative absolute, according 
to this rule, is sometimes put in the objective, governed by some verb or 
preposition understood; as, *' Me miserable! [that is, behold me miserable! 
pi;?/ me miserable!] " "Woe is we/ [that is, woe is to me! woe \s for 
me!]" 

Analysis in Parsing. 

[An exclamation which contains no verb may be called, in analyzing, 
an Exclamatory Expression. Its leading word should be pointed out, and 
the clauses, adjuncts, &c., by which it may be modified.] 

O liglit of Trojans and suppoii, of Troy ! O sacred city! O valiant 
heroes ! Religion ! what a treasure divine ! Your fathers, where are 
they 1 and the prophets, do they live forever ? The name of a pro- 
cession ! what a great mixture of independent ideas, of persons, habits, 
tapers, orders, motions, sounds, does it contain! O happy we! 
Miserable tliey! O me! Ah me! My friend, disregard not my 
advice ! 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. — RULES IX. -XIV. 

356. Repeat Rule IX. 357. In what case is the limited noun often 
omitted? 358. When two or more nouns standing together imply joint 
ownership, which takes the sign of the possessive? Which takes the sign, 
when separate ownership is implied? 359. When nouns denoting the 
same object stand together in the possessive, which takes the sign? 360. 
In what case is the sign of the possessive annexed to a noun in an adjunct, 
instead of to the noun which the adjunct modifies? Give examples. 
What neat way of parsing such expressions is suggested ? 

361. When we have possessives in apposition, if the limited word is 
omitted, which takes the sign? 362. ^Vhat other construction is often 
equivalent to the use of the possessive? How may we avoid the too fre- 
quent use of the possessive case? How is harshness or obscurity proceed- 
ing from the use of the possessive sometimes avoided? 363. What must 
not be separated by a clause? 364. State the rule that applies to a noun 
or pronoun preceding and limiting a participle. 

365. Repeat Rule X. To what does this rule apply? 366. In what 
case is an intransitive verb followed by the objective? 367. How should 
the objectives whom^ which, and that stand? 368. In what case must a 
preposition be expunged ? 369. State the principle with respect to con- 
necting two prepositions, or a transitive verb and a preposition, with the 
same object. 370. In what four cases may prepositions governing the 
objective case be omitted? 



PEONOUNS. 187 

371. Eepeat Rnle XI. 372. State the usage with respect to the word 
Trnne. 373. State the usage with respect to nouns denoting particular 
points of time. 

374. Eepeat Eule XII. 376. What may be used as one of the objec- 
tives after these verbs ? 376. What is the construction of these verbs- in 
the passive voice ? Give examples. ^ 

377. Eepeat Eule XIII. 378. To what are clauses containing a nom- 
inative absolute and a participle equivalent? 379. What is sometimes 
omitted in such clauses? Give an -example. 380. Give an example of the 
omission of the participle. 

381. Eepeat Eule XIV. 382. What exception is there to this rule? 



Rule XV. Pronouns. 

383. Prononns agi-ee with their antecedents, or with 
the words for which they stand, in person, number, and 
gsnder; as, "Robert broke his knife." "Men often 
destroy themselves^ " Thou who speakest art the man." 

In the first example, Ms agrees with the noun Robert, for which it 
stands, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender. In 
the second example, themselves agrees with the noun men, for which it 
stands, in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender. In the 
third example, who agrees with its antecedent thou, in the second person, 
singular number, and masculine gender. 

384. Pronouns referring to two or more singular nouns taken to- 
gether, must be in the plural number ; as, " George and Thomas excel in 
their studies." 

If the nouns referred to are of different persons, the pronoun, on being 
put in the plural, prefers the first person to the second, and the second to 
the third; as, " Thou, he, and I, excel in our studies." "Thou and he 
excel in ymir studies." 

385. Pronouns referring to two or more singular nouns taken sepa- 
rately must be in the singular number; as, "Neither James nor John is 
diligent in his [not theirl studies." " James, and also John, is diligent in 
Tiis [not their] studies." " James, as well as John, is diligent in Ms [not 
their'] studies." — But if one of the nouns referred to is plural, the pronoun 
also must be plural ; as, " Neither the captain nor the sailors were ac- 
quainted with their danger." 



188 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

386. A collective noun takes a pronoun in the singular or plural, ac- 
cording as it denotes unity or plurality ; as, " The senate resolved ilself 
into a committee of the whole." " The party generally thought that their 
leaders were wrong." 

387. When the singular nouns taken separately are of the third per- 
son and different genders, as no j#onoun of the third person is found in all 
the genders, different pronouns must be used, referring to the different nouns 
respectively; as, "No boy or girl must talk to Hs or Aer neighbor, when 
fce or sAe hears the bell ring." Such constructions are very awkward, yet 
it would be ungrammatical to use a plural pronoun of common gender, as 
is sometimes done; " No boy or girl must talk to their neighbor, when they 
hear the bell ring." The best way is to avoid the use of such expressions 
by substituting for the two nouns of different genders some general term 
applicable to both, and making the pronoun agree with this general term 
in the masculine; as, " No pupil^ [scholar^ child] must talk to his neighbor 
when he hears the bell ring." 

388. It is often used independently as .the subject of a verb, referring 
to some noun, pronoun, infinitive, or clause, Ln the predicate, without 
regard to the person, number, or gender of the latter; as, " It is /." " It 
is thou.^^ ^^ It is s^e." ^^ It is RoherVs childreii.'" '■^ It is the mark of a 
generous spirit to forgive injuries.^^ " It is strange that you have forgotten 
me." 

389. The compound personals, myself thyself &c., are sometimes used 
in apposition with a noun or pronoun for the sake of emphasis; as, " I my- 
self saw it." " They killed Cicero himself'' 

390. PT/jans sometimes used adverbially in the sense of partly ; as 
^^what with the war; " '■'■ what with the sweat," &c. 

391. What and but lohat are often improperly used for that; as, " They 
will not believe but what [ihaf] I have been to blame." " I have no doubt 
hut what [that] she did it." 

392. Every relative must have an antecedent, either expressed or un- 
derstood; as, " Who is partial to others, is so to himself." In this sen- 
tence, who refers to some indefinite antecedent understood; as, the man 
who, the person who, he who. 

393. The relative frequently refers to a whole clause ; as, " You have 
overcome envy with glory, which is very difficult." 

394. The relative is sometimes omitted. 1. In the nominative case ; 
as, " It is he [that] bids you forbear." 2. In the objective case; as, "The 
greatest curiosity [that'] we saw was the burning spring." 

395. When there are two antecedents of different persons, denoting 
the same object, the relative, though it may refer to either, agrees with the 
nearer one. " I, who made all things, am the Lord." Here, who agrees 



PRONOUNS. 189 

with /, in the first, singular. " I am the Lord, who made all things." 
Here, who agrees with Lord^ in the third, singular. 

396. The relative which, though generally used with reference to irra- 
tional animals or things, may be applied to young children. It was for- 
merly applied to persons also (as " Our Father, which art in heaven"), and 
is still so used when the antecedent has reference merely to the character 
or profession of the person, or is a name used merely as such ; as, " He has 
at length become a good performer, which he has long aimed to be." " I 
hate to hear you say Nero, which is another name for cruelty." 

As an interrogative pronoun, which is applied directly to persons ; as, 
" Which of you was there ? " 

397. The relative that^ may refer either to persons or things. It is* 
generally used in preference to who or which, in the following cases : — 

1. After an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, " Humility is one 
of the most amiable virtues that we can possess." 

2. After same, very, and all; as, " They are the same persons that wa 
saw yesterday." " You are the very man that I wanted to see." "J.?? that 
were aboard, were injured." 

3. After the interrogative who, and an antecedent introduced by it is ; 
as, " W7io that is prudent would conduct in such a manner? " "/i5 is you 
that must bear the responsibility; not I." 

4. When the antecedent consists of two or more words denoting both 
persons and things ; as, " My memory fondly clings to the dear friends and 
country that I have left." ^ 

398. Relatives in different clauses, referring to the same antecedent, 
should be the same; as, '' It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the 
war was undertaken, and that in the very beginning was reduced to the 
brink of ruin, lost nothing." Which should be used in the latter relative 
clause, because it is used in the former. 

399. The relative is generally placed after its antecedent, and should 
stand as near it as possible. " He often overreaches himself that tries to 
overreach others." In this sentence we have a faulty arrangement; the 
relative and its clause should stand immediately after the antecedent he, — 
"He that tries to overreach others, often overreaches himself." 

400. We can sometimes tell what a relative refers to only by its posi- 
tion. " I have seen a shawl made of silk which came from China." Is it 
the shawl or the silk that came from China ? The position of the relative 
indicates that it is the silk. If we wish to state that the shawl came from 
China, we must make such a change as will bring the relative immediately 
after shawl, — "I have just seen a silk shawl that came from China." 

401. A relative is sometimes introduced in such a way as to divide a 



190 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

clause which constitutes its antecedent; as, " There was, therefore, which 
is all we assert, a course of life pursued by them different from that which 
they before led." 

Analysis apd Parsing. 

[In parsing a relative, two rules must be given; one for its person, 
number, and gender, and another for its case. 

Model. — I shall never forget a friend who entertained me so 
hospitably and whom I love so much. 

Who is a simple relative pronoun, thus declined: Sing, and Plural, 
Nom. zc/w; Poss. whose; Obj. whom. It is in the third person, singular 
number, and masculine or feminine gender, because itsautecedentyWenc? is, 
with which it agi'ees according to Rule XV., — " Pronouns agree with their 
antecedents, or with the words for which they stand, in person, number, and 
gender." It is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb enter- 
tained; according to Rule II., — "The subject of a finite verb is in the 
nominative case." 

Whom is a simple relative pronoun, th^s declined : Sing, and Plural, 
Nom. who; Poss. whose; Obj. whom. It is in the third person, singular 
number, and masculine or feminine gender, because its antecedent friend 
is, with which it agrees according to Rule XV., — " Pronouns agree with 
their antecedents," &c. It is in the objective case, being the object of the 
transitive verb love ; according to the^ule, — " The object of a transitive 
verb or a preposition is in the objective case."] 

The little bill must be paid, but I confess it alarms me. The 
expense of my son here is greater than I ever imagined. Although his 
company is almost all the pleasure I have in life, yet I should not 
have brought him if I had known the expense. The cookery, and the 
manner of living here, which you know Americans were taught by 
their masters to dislike, are more agreeable to me than you can imagine. 
It is the care of a very great part of mankind to conceal their indigence 
from the rest; they support themselves by temporary expedients, and 
every day is lost in contriving for the morrow. 

The public are respectfully informed that their friend and ser- 
vant continues his business at the old stand. It is the little foxes 
that spoil the vines. Saints themselves could hardly have witnessed 
this with patience. Columbus had a promising child, in which cen- 
tered all a father's love. They are now tavern-keepers, which is all 
they are fit for. Who steals my purse, steals trash. The pleas- 



ADJECTIVE AND 8UBSTANTIYE. 191 

antest voyage we made was on tlie Mediterranean. The men and 
things that he treats of, he handles like a philosopher. I hear, which 
has surprised me much, that hostilities have actually commenced. 
Idleness and vice go hand in hand ; that is the parent, this the child. 

To he Coirected. 

Bebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. One should 
not think too favorably of themselves. The multitude eagerly pursue 
pleasure, as its chief good. The council were divided in its sentiments. 
The moon appears, but the light is not his own. The men which 
seek wisdom will find him. One cannot be too careful of their reputa- 
tion. My brother and I are employed in their proper business. George 
and Charles are diligent in his studies. Neither James nor John has 
gained for themselves much credit. Each of the sexes should be kept 
within their proper bounds. 

No father or mother lives that does not love his or her children. 
The army was cut up, or at least they suffered much Neither the 
baggage of this regiment nor their flags were captured. You, Robert, 
and I have been commended for your behavior. There can be no 
doubt but what gunpowder was known to the Chinese. All which I 
have said, you must consider confidential. The greatest curiosity 
which we saw was the very thing which I least expectea o admire. 
Who. who is a patriot can hesitate to take the field 1 The very men that 
had fought in the Peninsular War, and who had received the plaudits 
of all Europe, were defeated at New Orleans. Can any one, on their 
entrance into the world, be fully secure that they shall not be deceived ? 
The child whom we have just seen is wholesomely fed. 

Rule XVI. Adjective and Substantive. 

402. An adjective belongs to the noim or pronoun 
whose meaning it qualifies or limits; as, " a sour apple ; " 
" It is sour." 



403. Adjectives are sometimes used to modify other adjectives; as, " a 
bright blue pitcher; " " a pale red silk." 



192 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

404. An adjective is sometimes used to modify a noun and another 
adjective taken together; as, " a poor old man ; " "a ^ne bay horse." — In 
the use of such constructions, care must be taken that the adjective next 
to the noun express a quality which distinguishes it more than the other. 
It would be improper to say, " an old poor man," " a bay fine horse." 

405. Adjectives are used to modify infinitives and substantive clauses; 
as, " To see the sun is pleasanV^ " Whether we shall go is uncertain." 

406. Adjectives are sometimes used indefinitely, without direct refer- 
ence to any noun or pronoun; as, " To be wise and good, is to be great 
and noble.'''' " Being honest is better than being wealthy.'''' A noun, however, 
can generally be supplied in such cases; as, " For a person to be wise and 
good," &c. 

407. An adjective is used in the predicate of a sentence after an in- 
transitive verb, when the subject is to be modified, and not the action or 
state expressed by the verb; as, "The wind is blowing yres/i." "The 
flowers smell sweef'' When the action or state expressed by the verb is to 
be modified, an adverb must be used; as, "The flowers are growing 
rapidly.'''' 

Entirely diflerent meanings are sometimes conveyed by the use of an 
adjective and its corresponding adverb in the predicate. She looks cold 
implies that she looks as if she felt cold, the subject she being modified. 
She looks coldly on me implies that she looks as if she did not care for me, 
the verb looks being modified. 

An adjective following an intransitive verb is generally used correctly 
when the verb to be in a corresponding part can be substituted for the in- 
transitive verb, "i^e looks warm ; " we can say he is warm, therefore warm 
is correctly used. '^He walks rapid;'''' he is rapid would make no sense, 
therefore rapid should be changed to the adverb rapidly. To this rule, 
however, there are many exceptions. 

408. Adjectives are sometimes improperly used for adverbs; as, 
" miserable poor," for " miserably poor; " " excellent well," for " excellently 
well; " " He behaved himself conformable [instead of conformablyl to that 
great example." 

409. Such expressions as the two first, the three last, are authorized by 
good usage as well as the first two, the last three, although the latter are 
generally prefeiTcd. 

410. An adjective denoting more than one must be joined to a plural, 
and not a singular noun; as, " three shillings [not shilling'].'''' 

When a noun and a numeral are united to form a compound adjective, 
Ihe noun is generally used in the singular form; as, "A two-gallon jug." 
'A two-foot rule." 



ADJECTIVE AND SUBSTANTIVE. 193 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

All. When two objects, or more than two taken m- 
dividually, are compared, the comparative degree should 
be used; when more than two not taken individually, 
the superlative ; as, " John is the taller of the two." 
"John is taller than Richard." "John is taller than 
Richard or Timothy." "John is the tallest of the 
three." 

Remarhs. 

The superlative is often used when only two ohjects are compared, but 
improperly; as, "the weakest [instead o^ weaker] of the two." 

412. If the objects compared are of the same class, when the compar- 
ative degree is used, the object to which it is applied should be excluded 
from the rest by the use of the word other ; as, " Sirius is brighter than any 
other fixed star." If other were omitted in this sentence, it would lead to a 
wrong impression, — that Sirius is not a fixed star. 

When the objects compared are not of the same class, the object to 
which the adjective in the comparative degree is applied is sufficiently ex- 
cluded without the use of the word other ; as, " Venus is brighter than any 
fixed star." If other were inserted after any^ it would lead to a wrong 
impression, — that Venus is a fixed star. 

When the superlative degree is used, the object to which it belongs 
should not be excluded by the use of the word other ; as, " Sirius is the 
brightest of all the [not all the other] fixed stars." 

413. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided; as, "a 
more serener temper." It should be either a more serene or a serereer temper. 

414. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to the same 
object, the definitive an or a, or the, should not be prefixed to the latter 
noun; if to different objects, it should not be omitted. If we say, "Wil- 
son is a better blacksmith than carpenter," we refer to but one person, 
Wilson, and declare that he is better in the capacity of a blacksmith thar 
in that of a carpenter. If we say, " Wilson is a better blacksmith than a 
carpenter," or "i/ie carpenter," we compare two persons, Wilson and a 
carpenter, and declare that Wilson is the better blacksmith of the two. 

415. Such is often improperly used for so; as, " He was such an ex- 
travagant person." It should be '■^so extravagant a person." 

416. Adjectives denoting qualities that do not exist in diflferent degrees 
should not be compared, or used after so, as, or any other word implying 
comparison. We should not say "a more infinite variety," "there is no 
law so universal,'" &c.; but, "a greater variety," "there is no law so 
general,'^ &c. 13 



194 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Position of Adjectives, 

417. Adjectives generally stand immediately before 
the nouns to which they belong; as, "A generous man." 

Remarks. 
The following cases are exceptions. The adjective generally stands 
after its noun, — 

1. When it is limited by an adjunct or other words; as, "food con' 
venient for me; " "a rule, a foot long." 

2. When it expresses a title; as, " Alexander the GreaV* 

3. When it is predicated of a subject; as, " This man is generous." 
Sometimes, however, for the sake of emphasis, the predicated adjec- 
tive is placed first; as, " Great is Diana of the Ephesians." 

4. When the quality it denotes is the result of an action expressed by 
a verb ; as, " God made all things good." 

5. An adjective belonging to a pronoun in the objective case stands 
after it; as, " We found her well and happy." 

An adjective modified by an adverb sometimes precedes and sometimes 
follows its noun ; as, " a very great man; " " a man truly great." 

Several adjectives belonging to the same noun may either precede or 
follow it: as, "a learned, wise, and hrave prince;" or, " a prince learned, 
wise, and hrave." 

418. The definitive all is often separated from its noun by the ; as, "ilZZ 
Ihe people. AU sometimes stands after several nouns, to impart energy to 
the sentence; as, "Ambition, interest, honor, a/? concurred." 

419. All adjectives are separated from their nouns by a, when they are 
preceded by so or as; as, " so wise a man; " " as good a man." 

Analysis and Parsing. 
To advance was difficult, to retreat dangerous. Great is the 
Lord. He acted agreeably to my advice. Agreeable in her manners, 
amiable in her disposition, and obliging to all, she was a general 
favorite. How sweet the hay smells ! The great brilliancy of the sun 
makes the stars invisible during the day. Solomon was wiser than 
any Roman king. Numa was wiser than any other Roman king. 
Numa was the wisest of all the Roman kings. Numa was wiser 
than Ancus Martins, but less warlike. He is the least volatile of all. 
Covetousness enters deeper into the soul of man than any other 
vice. Our beer has turned sour. Napoleon was a better general than 
statesman. The colonel rides better than the major. To die for one's 
native country is sweet and becoming. Firm in his attachments, but 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 195 

fearful in his revenge, the American Indian seldom forgot either friend 
or foe. Man is the noblest of animals. Man is nobler than any other 
animal. 

To he Corrected. 

A new barrel of flour. A clear spring of water. A green load 
of wood. A new pair of boots. I can never think so mean of him. 
They wandered about solitarily and distressed. She reads proper, 
writes neat, and composes accurate. They lived comformable to the 
rules of prudence. He was such an extravagant man, that he soon 
wasted his property. I never saw such large trees. Such a bad temper 
is seldom found. A tree fifty foot high. Twenty ton of hay. I have 
just bought a sorrel handsome horse, and a Durham large cow. Young 
promising men are often led astray by temptation. 

'Tis more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. The 
tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the lesser weight it 
carries. The nightingale sings ; hers is the most sweetest voice in the 
grove. The Most Highest hath created us for His glory and our own 
happiness. Jupiter is larger than any planet. Jupiter is brighter 
than any other fixed star. The elephant has more instinct than any 
animal. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and should be 
his chiefest desire. Having come without my overcoat, I began to 
feel coldly. Look sharp. I see good. We sat silently. His assertion 
was more true than that of his opponent ; nay, the words of the latter 
were most untme. There is no king so supreme as he. Eve was 
the fairest of all her daughters. Profane swearing is, of all other 
vices, the most inexcusable. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, 
prove the likeliest of any other to succeed. He spoke with such 
propriety that I understood him the best of all the others who spoke 
on the subject. Of my two daughters, Jane is the quickest to learn, 
but Ellen is the most affectionate in her disposition. Henry is the 
elder of my three sons. Mr. Brown is a better writer than a speaker. 
It was a hard to understand subject. They are exceedingly difficult 
questions to be answered. 

Eule XVII. Pronominal Adjectives. 
420. Pronominal adjectives belong to the nouns which 
they limit, or are used alone as pronouns; as, this man, 
these men, both men, these think, both come. 



196 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

Remarks. 

421. A pronominal adjective, if it denotes but one, must be used with 
a singular noun ; if it denotes more than one, with a plural noun only ; as, 
this sort, these sorts. 

422. The pronominal adjectives each, every, either, and neither, require 
a noun, pronoun, or verb with which they are construed to be in the singu- 
lar number; as, "Every tree is known by its fruit." This rule is often 
violated, as in the following examples : — " Let each fulfil their [instead of 
his] part." *' Every passenger must hold their [instead of his] own ticket." 

Every is sometimes joined to a plural noun preceded by a numeral 
adjective; as, " every sza; months;^* ^^ every hundred years." As the noun 
and the numeral are together merely a complex term expressing a definite 
period, such examples do not constitute an exception to the rule. 

Even when several nouns are connected as the subject of a verb, if 
they are severally limited by each or every, expressed or understood, the 
verb must be singular; as, " Every leaf, every twig, and every drop of 
water, teems with life." 

423. Either is sometimes used for each ; as, " Two thieves were era 
cified, on either side one." 

424. Either and neither are used with reference to two things only; 
when more than two are referred to, any shojjld take the place of either^ 
and none of neither. We may say either of the two, neither of the two ; but, 
any of the three, none of the four. — Any and none, let it be remembered, im- 
ply either one or more than one. 

425. Both is sometimes used in apposition with a pronoun, for the sake 
of emphasis; as, "He forgave them both." "I will teach you both." 

426. One is often used indefinitely, to signify persons in general ; as, 
" One ought to pity the distresses of mankind." 

427. The pronominals former and latter, one and other, that and this, 
may be used to represent two nouns or clauses in contrast, when there is 
no danger of obscurity; as, " Genius and talent must not be confounded: 
the former [or, the one, meaning genius] qualifies a person for the most ex- 
alted eflforts; the latter [or, the other, meaning talent], for the active duties 
and employments of life." 

428. This here, that there, and them for those, are common vulgarisms. 
TJiis here book, should be this book; that there coat, should be that coat; 
them dishes, should be those dishes. 

Analysis and Parsing. 
Pronominal Adjectives. 
One day Alonzo made a discovery that startled him. The boy 
hoped he had made some impression. Every feeling of gratitude is 



AN OR A,-— TEE, 197 

obliterated by one single interference with your wicked desires. He 
soon learned that it was one thing to see that his feelings were wrong, 
and another thing to feel right. These omissions were more frequent 
than he imagined. The eyes of them both were opened. 

Pronominal Adjectives used as Peonottns. 

And he went after the man of Israel into the tent, and thrust both 
of them through. The same is equally true of the past. In the even- 
ing he was occupied with some one of these enjoyments, and the next 
dav he was planning another. This he could not but strongly shrink 
from. Let others serve whom they will ; as for me and my house, 
we will serve the Lord. The dialogue between conscience and his 
heart was going on all the time ; the latter finally prevailed. Many 
shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ, and shall deceive many. 
Jubal was the father of such as dwell in tents. More I cannot do, less 
I will not do. Either will answer my purpose. 

To be Corrected. 
These kind of indulgences. Those sort of favors. I have been 
waiting this two hours. Do you see those books lying on this table 1 
These men that stand yonder are soldiers. Both the sun, moon, and 
planets turn on their axes. Do you see them people walking in the 
park"? This 'ere boy and that 'ere girl are constantly in mischief. 
This here table needs dusting ; but do not move them books. Every 
pebble and every blade of grass testify to the greatness of their Creator. 
Neither of the soldiers of the regiment has cause to complain. Neither 
of my three sisters can play on the pinao. Ask either of the twenty 
that survived, their feelings at that trying hour. 

Rule XVIII. An or A, — The. 

429. The definitive adjective an or a is used before 
nouns in the singular only ; the is used before nouns in 
both numbers ; as, a man, the man, the men. 

Remarks. 

430. A is sometimes used before the pronominal few, and some ad- 
jectives of number, such as hundred, thousand, million, &c., though a 
noun follows in the plural; as, a few tearSf a hundred men^ a thousand 
doUara. 



198 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

431. A is followed by a singnlar noun, even when many precedes 
and more than one are implied; as, "Full many a gem;" "many a 
youth." 

432. A nice distinction in the sense is made by the use or omission of 
a before the words Uttle and/ew. " He has a little reverence; " this means 
that he has reverence in a slight degree. " He has little reverence; " this 
implies a doubt whether he has any. 

433. An or a is sometimes used in the sense of each or every ; as, " twice 
a day." 

434. The definitive an must not be confounded with the conjunction an^ 
formerly used with the meaning of if; as, " an it please your honor." 

435. When the meaning of the noun is general, and requires no limita/- 
tion, the definitive is omitted; as, " Honor to whom honor is due." " Man 
is mortal." " He is called Count." 

436. When two or more nouns are closely connected and have the same 
construction, a», a, or the may be used with the first and omitted with the 
rest, or may be I'epeateu for the sake of greater emphasis with each; as, 
"I love iAe brighuiess, [the] noise, and [the] excitement of day." But 
if the noun? are contrasted, or have not a common construction, the defini- 
tive in question must be used with each; as, " I love the brightness, but not 
the noise, of day." It would be improper to omit the before noise. 

437. When two or more adjectives are used to express different quali- 
ties of the same object, the definitives an or a and the may be used with the 
first, and omitted with the rest; as, "a large and convenient dwelling," 
referring to a single dwelling. But if they express qualities of different ob- 
jects, the definitive must be used before each; as, "J. large and a con- 
venient dwelling," referring to two dwellings. " A white and black horse " 
means one horse partly white and partlj' black. " A white and a black 
horse " means two horses, one white and the other black. 

When there is no danger of ambiguity, the latter definitive is some- 
times omitted, and the noun put in the plural number; as, " the Old and 
New Testaments." Such constructions, however, though shorter and less 
formal, are to be avoided as not strictly correct. 

438. An or a and the never by themselves stand after the nouns to 
which they belong. Sometimes, however, with another adjective, they are 
placed after it; as, " men a dozen, dames a few; " "Pliny the younger." 
But even when an adjective is introduced after the noun, the definitive 
may keep its place before the noun; as, "a» estate larger than any other 
in the city." 

To he Corrected. 
Reason was given to a man to control his passions. A man is 
the noblest work of creation. He is a much better writer than a 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 199 

reader. The king has conferred on him a title of a duke. Wisest 
and best men sometimes commit errors. He has been censured for 
giving a little att^tion to his business. I like the quiet but not dews 
of evening. Look not at the appearance but merit of your visitors. 
A stream runs between the stone and brick house. "We visited the 
American and Canadian fall. Among variegated flowers, none is 
prettier than a red and a white rose. He lamented that a few men love 
honor more than riches. A rosewood and a mahogany table has been 
jjresented to her. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. — RULES XV.- XVin. 

383. Repeat Rule XV. Give examples. 384. What is the rule for 
pronouns referring to two or more singular nouns taken together ? If the 
nouns are of different persons, which does the pronoun prefer? 385. What 
is the rule for pronouns referring to two or more singular nouns taken sep- 
arately? 386. In what number must a pronoun referring to a collective 
noun be put ? 387. State the principle that applies to singular nouns of 
the third person and different genders, taken separately. 

388. How is it often used? 389. How are the compound personals 
sometimes used ? 390. How is w^ai sometimes used ? 391. What are often 
improperly used for that f 392. What must every relative have ? 393. To 
what does the relative frequently refer? 394. Give examples of the omis- 
sion of the relative. 395. When there are two antecedents of different 
persons, with which does the relative agree ? 396. To what is the relative 
tffhich applied? In what case is it applied to persons? As an interrogative, 
to what may which be applied? 

397. To what may the relative that refer? In what cases is it generally 
preferred to who or which ? 398. What is the rule for relatives in different 
clauses referring to the same antecedent? 399. How should the relative 
stand, as regards its antecedent ? 400. What sometimes affords us the only 
means of determining the antecedent of a relative ? 401. In what way is a 
relative sometimes introduced ? 

402. Repeat Rule XVI. 403. What are adjectives sometimes used 
to modify? 404. In such expressions as a poor old man, what does the 
former of the two adjectives modify ? What is essential in the use of such 
constructions? 405. What else are adjectives used to modify ? 406. Illus- 
trate and explain the indefinite use of an adjective. 407. When is an ad- 
jective used in the predicate after an intransitive verb, and when an adverb ? 
Show the difference of meaning resulting from the use of adjective and 



200 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

adverb. 408. For what are adjectives sometimes improperly used? 409. 
What forms of expression may be used instead of (hejirsitwo, the last three^ 
&c. ? 410. With what must an adjective denoting more than one be used? 

411. Give the rule that applies to the use of the comparative and 
the superlative. 412. Give the rule that applies to the use of the compar- 
ative degree, when the objects compared are of the same class. When the 
objects compared are not of the same class. State the principle that ap- 
plies when the superlative degree is used. 413. What is said of double com- 
paratives and superlatives '? 414. When should an or a and the not be 
prefixed to the latter of two nouns compared, and when not omitted ? 415. 
For what is such often improperly used? 416. What is the rule for adjec- 
tives denoting qualities that do not exist in different degrees? 

417. How do adjectives generally stand? What exceptions are noted? 
How does an adjective modified by an adverb stand, as regards its noun? 
What is the position of several adjectives belonging to the same noun ? 
418. How does all often stand? 419. When are all adjectives separated 
from their nouns by a f 

420. Repeat Rule XVH. 421. What must be the number of the nouns 
with which pronominal adjectives are joined? 422. State the rule relating 
to each, every, either, and neither. 423. For what is either sometimes 
used? 424. Explain the difference in use between either, neither, and any, 
none. 425. How is both sometimes used? 426. How is one often used? 

427. For what may former and latter, one and other, that and this, be used? 

428. What vulgarisms must be avoided? 

429. Repeat Rule XVHI. 430. In what case may a noun in the 
plural follow af 431. By what is many a followed? 432. Show the differ- 
ence between little, few, and a little, a few. 433. In what sense is an or a 
sometimes used? 434. With what must the definitive an not be confound- 
ed? 435. When are an or a and the omitted? 436. State the principle 
that relates to the omission of an or a and the before the last of two or more 
nouns. 437. State the principle that regulates the omission of a« or a and 
the when two or more adjectives are used. 438. How do an or a and the 
stand as regards their noun ? 



Ride XIX. The Infinitive. 

439. A verb in the infinitive mode generally limits the 
meaning of a verb, noun, or adjective; as, "I hope to 
succeed^ " Have a desire to improved " She is anxious 
to hearP 



THE INFINITIVE. 201 



440. A verb in the infinitive may also limit the meaning of, — 

1. As or than; as, "He is so conceited as to thinJc himself learned." 
" He desired nothing more than to know his imperfections." 

2. Adverbs; as, "I know not how to address you." "He is too lazy 
to study.'' ^ 

3. Prepositions; as, "My friend is about to tofce his departure." In 
old writings, we find the preposition ybr limited by an infinitive; as, " What 
went ye out /or to see?" But this construction has gone out of use, and 
should be avoided. 

441. The infinitive is also used independently; as, ^^ To say the leasts 
he has erred in judgment." " To proceed with our argument." 

442. The expression to be sure is often used adverbially, in the sense 
of surely or certainly. 

443. When the infinitive denotes purpose or design, it is frequently 
preceded by the words in order, but not always ; as, " He went to Ger- 
many in order to finish his education," or to finish his education." 

444. When two or more infinitives in the same construction stand 
near each other, the sign to may be omitted with all but the first; as, " He 
wishes to visit foreign countries, and thus [to] enlarge his views and [to] 
improve his mind." In such cases, the sign is repeated when emphasis is 
desired; as, "He has returned to his native country, to visit his friends, 
and — to die." 

445. Never use to alone for a verb in the infinitive mode ; as, " I have 
never intrigued for oflice, and I never intend to." It should be, " I never 
intend to do so." 

is and Pi 



He was willing to risk all, for the excitement of a new revolu- 
tion. Not far from the city of Avila, they caused a scaffold to be 
&'ected, of sufficient elevation to be easily seen from the surrounding 
country. Be not so greedy of popular applause, as to forget that 
the same breath which blows up a fire may blow it out again. I un- 
derstand him better than to suppose he will relinquish his design. 
The abject mind of Henry was content to purchase repose, even by 
the most humiliating sacrifice. It is our duty to try, and our deter- 
mination to succeed. I am following up the subject, to satisfy my 
own mind, enlighten others, and expose the baseness of those who 
have sought to deceive and betray us. 



202 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Rule XX. Infinitive without the Si^. 
446. When the verbs bid^ dare [meaning venture]^ 
hear^feel^ make^ need, see, in the active voice, or let, in 
either the active or the passive, are followed by an in- 
finitive, the sign to is omitted before it; as, " You bid 
me come [not to come']P "I saw him fall [not tofalT]^ 
"He durst do anything." "They let me recite." "The 
curtain was let fall." 

Remarks. 

447. This rule applies also to the participle of the above-mentioned 
verbs; as, " Making me look [not to looTc] him in the face, he smiled." 

448. Though generally omitted, the sign of the infinitive is sometimes 
retained after need and dare ; as, " He needs to be restrained." " She has 
dared to speak ill of the king." 

449. To is not omitted after dare meaning challenge ; as, " He dared 
me to repeat the expression." 

450. The verbs watch, behold, Tcncnv, observe have, and some others, 
are occasionally followed by the infinitive without the sign to; as, " We 
watched him enter." " I have known him go two days without food." 

Analysis and Parsing. 

The name of Henry makes them leave me desolate. Dare any 
man he so bold to sound retreat or parley, when I command them 
hill ? Hark ! I hear the angels sing. And the multitude wondered 
when they saw the lame walk and the blind see. He had dared to 
think for himself. The haughty infidel banished from the schools 
all who had dared draw water from the living fountain. I found 
my friend express much satisfaction with the bargains he had 
made. 

To he Corrected, according to Rules XIX., XX. 

Your duty requires you to go, and I advise you to. I have 
never truckled to demagogues, and I never intend to. Wellington 
stormed the city because his oflBcers urged him to. Lend me your 
pencil for to sharpen my knife. I tried for to see him, but without 
success. Be anxious for improving. You ought not walk too hastily. 
I need not to solicit him to do a kind action. I have seen some 
young persons to conduct themselves very indiscreetly. Robert 
dared his cousin fight him. Fabius durst not to come to a general 
engagement. 



PARTICIPLES USED AS NOUNS. 203 

Bule XXI. Participles used as Adjectives. 
451. Participles belong to nouns or pronouns which 
they limit or modify. 

Remarhs. 

452. This rule applies to participles used in such a way as to partake 
of the properties of adjective and verb; as, " Persuading my brother to ac- 
company me, I emigrated to Kansas." Like an adjective, ^ers«ac7t«^ modi- 
fies /, and therefore belongs to it according to the above rule. It retains, 
at the same time, the governing power of the verb from which it comes, 
being followed by brother in the objective case. 

453. A participle may belong to a clause or the leading proposition of 
a sentence ; as, " Oioing to the bad state of the roads, he was detained a 
day beyond the time." In this sentence, owing belongs to the leading 
proposition, he was detained a day beyond the time. — Observe that omng^ 
though active in form, has a passive force, as if used for owed. 

454. Participles are sometimes used indefinitely, without reference to 
any noun or pronoun expressed ; as, " It is impossible to act otherwise, con- 
Bering the weakness of our nature." " Generally peaking, his conduct 
was honorable." 

Rule XXII. Participles used as Nouns. 

455. Participles used as nouns have the construc- 
tion of nouns, while they are modified in the same way, 
and govern the same case, as the verbs from which they 
are formed. 

EemarJcs. 

456. This rule applies to participles preceded by a preposition, the 
definitive the, a noun or pronoun in the possessive, or used as the subject or 
object of a verb ; as in the following sentences : — 

I am in favor of going at once. 

The adorning of the person occupies too much of our time. 

Much depends on the pupil's obeying promptly. 

Cultivating the ground is hard work. 

I like travelling rapidly. 

By comparing these sentences with the example given under Eule 
XXI., it will be seen that the participle here has an entirely different 
office. 

457. Even when thus used as nouns, the present and the compound 
participle active retain the governing power of the verb firom which they 



204 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

come. " He was displeased with the king's having bestowed the office upon 
a worthless man." In this sentence, the compound participle, used as a 
noun, requires A;jn9's, the noun before it, to be in the possessive; at the 
same time, as a verb, it governs q^ce in the objective. 

458. As before remarked,, a noun or pronoun preceding and limiting a 
participle is put in the possessive case; as, " CcBsar^s having crossed the 
Rubicon spread consternation throughout Rome." 

459. When preceded by the definitive (he, the present participle active 
must, in most cases, be followed by of: as, "the gaining o/* wisdom;" 
" the supplying of onr wants." The omission of the preposition after the 
participle makes expressions like the following incorrect: — the preaching 
repentance, the writing an essay. 

The converse of this rule also holds good. When the participle is not 
preceded by the, of should not be introduced: as, "gaining wisdom; " 
" supplying our wants." The introduction of the preposition after the 
participle makes expressions like the following incorrect: By preaching of 
repentance, In writing of an essay. Use both the and of with the participle, 
or omit both. 

Analysis and Parsing. 

[The following examples will show how participles are to be parsed 
and the last two rules applied. 

Model. — In bidding you God-speed after having just entered 
on the business of life, allow me to advise your avoiding all those 
temptations which young men find it so hard to resist. Reflect- 
ing on the past will often enable you to escape diflSculties in the 
future. 

Bidding is a participle of the verb hid; the participles are, pres. bidding^ 
perf. hid or hidden, compound having hid; present active, used as a noun in 
the objective case, governed by the preposition in, according to the Rule, 
" Participles used as nouns have the construction of nouns," &c. 

Having entered is a participle of the verb enter; the participles are, 
pres. entering, perf. entered, compound having entered ; compound used as an 
adjective, and modifies the pronoun you, to which it belongs, according to 
the Rule, " Participles belong to nouns or pronouns which they limit or 
modify." 

Avoiding is a participle of the verb avoid; the participles are, pres. 
mviding,^erf. avoided, comYiOimd having avoided; it is the present active, 
and is used as a noun in the objective case, after the transitive verb to 
advise, according to the Rule, " Participles used as nouns have the con- 
Btruction of nouns," &c. 

Reflecting is a participle of the verb reflect ; the participles are, pres. 



THE SUBJUNCTIVE. 205 

reflecting, perf. reflected, componnd having reflected; it is the present active, 
and is used as a noun in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb 
vnll enable, according to the Rule, " Participles used as nouns," &c.] 

And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, and 
breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat -with gladness 
and singleness of heart, praising God, and having favor with all the 
people. He has left town for Ireland without taking leave of either of 
US. I have nothing to do with the President's having deprived your 
brother of office. We considered man as belonging to societies ; socie- 
ties as formed of different ranks ; and different raliks as distinguished 
by habits. Having been very well entertained by your description of 
clubs, I shall take the liberty of furnishing you with a brief account of 
Buch a one as you have not seen. 

To he Corrected. ** ^ 

By observing of truth. By the observing truth. By the sending 
proper information. Without the taking pains. Without taking of 
pains. The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up 
kings, belong to Providence alone. Poverty turns one's thoughts too 
much upon the supplying one's wants. In tracing of his history, we 
discover little that is worthy of imitation. Do you advise the road 
being commenced at once ? The emperor being defeated by an army 
inferior to his own, occasioned no little surprise. I doubt these moun- 
tains ever having been crossed before. 



Rule XXIII. The Subjunctive 

460. The subjunctive mode is used to express future 
contingency ; also, after the conjunctions lest and that 
annexed to a command, and after that denoting a wish ; 
as, " Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him." " Sin 
no more, lest a worse thing come upon thee." " See that 
thou reform^ " Oh ! that I were at home ! " 

Remarks. 

461. Contingency is denoted by if, though., whether, and other conjunc- 
tions. Futurity is implied when the leading verb is future, or when shall 
can be placed before the verb in the conditional clause without injury to 



206 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

the sense. When both are implied, and only then, use the subjunctive 
mode in the conditional clause; as, " Though he [shall] slay me, yet will I 
trust in him." " If it [shall] rain, I will not go." " If he do but touch the 
hills, they shall smoke." 

462. The subjunctive was formerly used in all cases to express contin- 
gency, whether the time denoted was past, present, or future. It is now 
used only when future time is implied ; and even then, in familiar discourse, 
the tendency is to substitute the indicative. 

463. A present supposition implying a denial of the thing supposed, is 
expressed by the imperfect subjunctive; as, "If I were Eobert, I would 
go." " Were 1 in Robert's place, I would remain." 

Note. — Be is sometimes equivalent to may be, and were to would be or 
should be ; as, What care I how fair she be. I were a knave to act thus. In 
such cases be and were are in the potential mode. 

To be Corrected. 

[Using the indicative or the potential mode subjunctively does not 
involve any change of form in the tenses of these modes. Use the subjunc- 
tive only when required by the above rule. After correcting the following 
Bcntences, parse them.] 

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. Though he 
urges me yet more earnestly, I shall not comply. I shall walk in the 
fields to-day, unless it rains. As the governess were present, the 
children behaved properly. Despise not any condition, lest it happens 
to be your own. Let him that is sanguine take heed lest he fails. 
Take care that thou breakest not any of the established rules. If he 
does but intimate his desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. 
At the time of his return, if he is but expert in the business, he will 
find employment. If he speak only to display his abilities, he is 
unworthy of attention. 

If be be but in health, I am content. If thou have promised, be 
faithful to thy engagement. Though he have proved ^his right to 
submission, he is too generous to exact it. If thou had succeeded, 
perhaps thou wouldst not be the happier for it. Though thou did 
injure him, he harbors no resentment. Was he ever so great and 
opulent, this conduct would debase him. Was I to enumerate all her 
virtues, it would look like flattery. Though I was perfect, yet I would 
not presume. Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up 
honorably. Though thou might have foreseen the danger, thou could 
not have avoided it. Would that he was here ! 



USE OP THE TENSES. 207 

Bule XXIV. Use of the Tenses. 

464. In using verbs, different tenses should not be 
confounded, nor should any tense be employed except in 
such connections as are consistent with the time it denotes. 

Remarhs, 

This mle is necessarily general. From the definitions of the different 
tenses and the illustrations that have been given of their use, it must be 
detennined which it is proper to use in any particular case. The following 
remarks will put the pupil on his guard against the commonest errors : — 

465. The perfect participle must not be used for the imperfect indica- 
tive. I done for I did, she come for she came, he begun for he began, we drunk 
for we drank, are all wrong in consequence of their violating this rule. 

466. The imperfect indicative must not be used for the perfect parti- 
ciple. Hence the errors in the following sentences : — 

The river has froze over; it should be has frozen. 
The storm has began ; it should be has begun. 
The horse was drove hard ; it should be was driven. 
The thief has stole my watch ; it should be has stolen. 

467. The perfect must not be used with adverbs or adverbial clanses 
expressing past time; as, "I have completed the task two days ago," — it 
should be / completed. 

468. The imperfect potential must not, as a general rule, be used in 
connection with the fature indicative or the present potential. " Ye will not 
come to me, that ye might have life." This is wrong, because the imperfect 
potential might have is used in connection with the future indicative will 
come. If past time is referred to, it should be, " Ye would not come to me, 
that ye might have life; " if future, " Ye wUl not come to me, that ye may 
have life." 

" I should be glad if he will write," is wrong for a similar reason; will 
must be changed to would. The present potential, however, may be used 
in connection with should meaning ought, or could meaning was able to ; as, 
" He should take exercise, that he may recover his health." " It may be that 
he could not come.^'' 

469. The present infinitive is used after verbs signifying to hope, to 
intend, to desire, to command, to promise, and the like; and also to express an 
action or state which is not prior to that denoted by the leading verb ; as, 
" I hoped to see you." " I shall want to hear from you." " I had resolved 
to remain." " He is said to be fifty years old." 

If the action or state expressed by the verb ia the infinitive is prior to 



208 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

that denoted by the leading verb, the perfect must be usyd; as, "Galileo 
is thought to have invented the thermometer." 

470. Different auxiliaries must not be used with one and the same 
verbal form, unless it is appropriate to each. " I can accomplish as much 
in one day as he has in two." Accomplish is correctly used with the first 
auxiliary can, but not with the second has, — we cannot say has accomplish. 
The sentence should therefore read, " I can accomplish as much iu one day 
as he has accomplished in two." 

471. The intransitive verbs sit and lie must not be confounded with 
the transitive verbs set and lay. The difference in their conjugation is as 
follows : — 

INTRANSITIVE. TRANSITIVE. 

Sit, sat, sat. Set, set, set. 

Lie, lay, lain Lay, laid, laid- 

To sit means to rest on a seat ; to set means to place. We sit down, but set 
things in order. We sat down yesterday; we set things in order yesterday. 
We have just sat down; we have just set the trap. — There is, also, an 
intransitive verb to set; as, " The sun sete." 

To lie means to recline ; to lay means to place. We lie down ; we lay a 
thing down. I lay down yesterday; I laid a thing down yesterday. He 
has just lain down; he has just laid down his book. 

To be Corrected. 

It will give our parents much pain to have heard of your miscon- 
duct. They desired to have seen you respected and esteemed, but alas ! 
their hopes have been unexpectedly cut off. They intended to have 
devoted you to the service of your country and mankind ; but, when 
the sad intelligence reaches them, how would they sink under the 
burden of their disappointment ! I expected to have seen them before 
the news should have reached them, but urgent duties will have 
prevented. I begun to think that I done wrong to conceal this 
from my fatlie'-. He never drunk anything but water. His children 
have all forsook him. The bell has rang. You might have drove 
fa-^ter, I think. His style has formerly been admired. Robert has 
come to the same conclusion last week. They have resided in Italy till 
two months ago. 

They laid down to rest. A beggar was setting by the wayside. 
A stone was laying in the street. The tree has laid there several 
days. Let us set down. It is injurious to health to set up late. He 
set up, and begun to speak. Sin iayeth at the door. If he wishes. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 209 

he might come. I wiirbe much obliged to you if you would close that 
door. I might lead a better life, if you will stay with me. Man never 
has and never will be perfectly contented. He was slandering me 
behind my back, but he never will again. You are talking improperly, 
and have for the last half-hour. What nation has tolerated such 
cruelty or ever will ? He sets a horse well. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS.— RULES XIX. -XXIV. 

439. Repeat Rule XIX. 440. What else may a verb in the infinitive 
Kmit? 441. How is the infinitive sometimes used? 442. How is the 
expression to be sure used? 443. When the infinitive denotes purpose or 
design, by what is it often preceded ? 444. State the principle that relates 
to the omission of the sign to. 445. For what must the sign to not be 
used? 

446. Repeat Rule XX. 447. To what does this rule apply? 448. 
After which of the verbs mentioned in the rule is to sometimes retained ? 
449. In what case is the sign of the infinitive retained after dare f 450. 
After what verbs is it occasionally omitted ? 

451. Repeat Rule XXI. 452. To what participles does this rule apply? 
453. To what may a participle belong ? 454. How are participles some- 
times used ? 

455. Repeat Rule XXII. 456. To what participles does this rule 
apply? 457. What is said of the governing power of the participles? 
458. In what case must a noun or pronoun preceding and limiting a parti- 
ciple be put ? 459. When must the present participle active be followed 
by of, and when not ? 

460. Repeat Rule XXHI. 461. By what is contingency denoted? 
How can we tell when futurity is implied ? 462. What is the difference 
between former and present usage, as regards the subjunctive mode ? 463. 
What is the imperfect subjunctive used to imply ? 

464. Repeat Rule XXIV. How must we determine what tense to 
use in any particular case ? 465, 466. What two parts must not be used 
for each other ? Give examples. 467. With what must the perfect not be 
used? 468. With what, as a general rule, must the imperfect potential 
not be used? What exceptions to this rule are noted? 469. What prin- 
ciple determines the use of the present infinitive and the perfect infinitive ? 

470. "What is said of the use of different auxiliaries with one verbal form? 

471. What verbs are apt to be confounded? Conjugate them, and show 
tiie iifference in their use ? 

14 



210 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 



Kule XXV. Adverbs. 

472. Adverbs generally modify verbs, participles, 
adjectives, and other adverbs ; as, " We seldom see very 
old men walking rapidly ; they are too easily tired." 

Remarks. 

473. Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions, adjuncts, and phrases: 
as, '■^just below the surface ; " " indtp&ndently of these considerations ; " "I 
lived almost in vain." 

474. Adverbs may be used absolutely; that is, with reference to no 
particular word, but rather to a whole sentence. This is the case with j^ea 
and 7W, used as answers to questions, amen, then (in the sense of to sum up 
the matter), therefore, &c. VVTiy, loell, there, &c. are often used as expletives, 
— that is, to introduce a sentence without any special force; as, " PF%j/, I 
had not heard this." 

475. Adverbs iire sometimes used as nouns: as, "until now?;" "Since 
when has this state of things come about? " 

476. Adverbs are sometimes used instead of adjectives to modify 
nouns: as, '■'■almost a dollar:" "not quite a year;" "not only a house, 
but also a farm; " " the above discourse; " " the then ministry." In some 
cases, as in the first three examples given above, this construction is war- 
ranted by the best usage. When not well established, however, it should 
be strictly avoided. The ministry then in office is preferable to the then 
ministry. 

477. The word modified by an adverb is sometimes omitted ; as, " I'll 
[^o] hence to London." 

478. From is often used by good writers before whence, hence, and 
^ence ; but, being implied in their meaning, it is unnecessary. We caa 
say either, " Whence art thou ? " or, " From whence art thou ? " 

479. Two negatives in the same clause are equivalent to an affiima- 
tive; as, '■'■Nor did they not perceive," — that is, they did perceive. Unless 

• it is intended to convey an affirmation, two negatives should not be used. 
Such sentences as " I don't want no bread," are common vulgarisms. They 
may be corrected by leaving out one of the negatives ; as, " I want no 
bread," or " I don't want any bread." 

480. Where may be used for in which only when place is referred to. 
It is right to say, " That is the spot where I was born; " but not, " That is 
the book where I found the example." 



ADVERBS. 211 



Position of Adverbs. 

481. The position of adverbs depends on the sense 
intended to be conveyed. As a general rule, they should 
stand near the words they modify. 

Compare these two sentences : — " We always find them ready." " We 
find them always ready." The position of the adverb is right in both; but 
the meaning conveyed is dififerent. From the first it is not certain that 
they are always ready, as is asserted in the second, but that we always find 
them so. 

482. Adverbs generally stand before adjectives, after 
verbs in the simple tenses, and after the first auxiliary in 
the compound tenses; as, "He is very anxious." "He 
spoke kindly P " He is busily employed." 

483. Enough^ modifying an adjective, is placed after it; as, " He is not 
tall enoughs 

484. Never, always, often, and seldom, generally precede the verb in 
the simple tenses; as, " He never tells the truth." 

485. When an adverb is used with the infinitive mode, it must not be 
introduced between the sign to and the verbal form ; as, " He has learned 
to handsomely ^^UnV "It is your duty to never despair." These sen- 
tences should be, " He has learned to paint handsomely." " It is your duty 
never to despair." 

486. Only and not only, merely and chiefly, are often improperly placed, 
and thus give the sentence in which they stand a diiTerent force from what 
the writer intended it to have. For example, " He only washed my face; " 
this implies that he did nothing more to my face than to wash it, — he did 
not dry it. If I mean that no other part than my face was washed, I 
should place only near the word it is intended to modify, — " He washed 
my face only." 

In like manner, there is an error in the following sentence ; " He has 
not only bought a house, but also a farm." As it now stands, not only mod- 
ifies the verb has bottght, and we naturally expect a verb to follow, — has 
not only bought it, but paid for it, or something of the kind. But the au- 
thor clearly intended it to modify house, since that is the word which is 
emphatically contrasted with /arm. The sentence should therefore read, 
•* He bought not only a house, but also a farm." 



212 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

Analysis and Parsing. 
There* there,* now you have talked enough for one lecture 
** "Well,* sir," said I, " how did you like little Miss 1 I hope she 
was fine enough." " Alas ! maJam," said he one day, " how few 
books are there, of which one ever can possilily arrive at the last 
page." The women and children only were saved from the confla- 
gration. He then, having received the sop, went immediately out. 
Up and onward ! there are no obstacles that courage and perse- 
verance will not certainly surmount. From thence we proceeded 
directly to Berlin, as rapidly as steam could carry us. The wall 
tottered, and had wellnigh fallen right on their heads. Well, 
he brought him home, and reared him at the then Lord Valdez's 
cost. — Coleridge. 

Stoop down, ray thoughts that used to rise. 

Converse awhile with death. 

» To he Corrected. 

"When he is in such moods, he will not see nobody. Nor is there 
no father that will tolerate such conduct. Can you turn to the page 
where you found it 1 The passage where I saw the word has escaped 
me. He has been deceived certainly. Roger Bacon was the inventor 
of spectacles undoubtedly. Milton has been acknowledged generally 
as one of the greatest poets the world ever has produced. Firm in his 
attachments always, Lafayette never forgot a friend. He reads the 
paper before breakfast always. I like never to hear a person slander 
his neighbors. I was tempted to forcibly take possession of the papers. 
Murat was seen to gallantly charge into the thickest of the fight. I 
have a mind to pleasantly upbraid you. Robespierre not only awak- 
ened the dislike, but the abhorrence, of the community. England not 
only produces rye and oats, but barley also. Turkey is chiefly indebted 
to the mutual jealousy of the other European powers, for its existence 
as an empire. Do not merely take me to thy arms, but to thy heart. 

Bule XXVI. Prepositions. 

487. Prepositions show the. relations of things; as, 
" From Boston, we proceeded by railroad to Portland." 

* These adverbs are used absolutely. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



213 



This rule should be given when a preposition is parsed. Thus, in the 
example given above : From is a preposition, and shows the relation be 
tween its object Boston and the verb proceeded; according to the Eule 
*' Prepositions show the relations of things." 

488. Appropriate prepositions must follow certain 
words. 

Li the sentence "I am interested with the book," with is improperly 
nsed after interested in place of in. As such errors are very frequent, a list 
of some common words and the prepositions that should be used after them 
is given below. 



Abhorrence of. 

Abound vnth, in. 

Accompanied with an inanimate ob- 
ject; by anything that has life. 

Accuse of. 

Acquaint with. 

Adapted to. 

Agree with a person ; to a proposition 
from another; upon sl thing among 
ourselves. 

Arrive at, in. 

Attended voith an inanimate object; 
by anything that has life. 

Averse to, from. 

Beguile of. 

Capacity ybr. 

Careful of in, about. 

Careless of in, about. 

Charge on a person ; with a thing. 

Compare with (in respect of quality) ; 
to (for the sake of illustration). 

Connect with. 

Conversant with men; with or in 
things : about and among are some- 
times used. 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond with. 

Die of a disease ; hy an instrument or 
violence. 



Differ with a person ; from a thing. 

Different yroOT. 

Disappointed o/* what we fail to ob- 
tain ; in what does not answer our 
expectations, when obtained. 

Entrance into. 

Expert zn, at. 

Familiar to us ; with a thing. • 

Followed by. 

Impatient of control; ai delay; 
for something expected; under 
wrongs. 

Influence on, over, mth. 

Interfere with. 

Militate against. 

Participate with a person; in, of, 
things. 

Profit by. 

Provide a person with a thing; a 
thing/br a person ; against misfor- 
tunes. 

Eeconcile (in friendship) to; (to 
make consistent) vdth. 

Keduce (subdue) under; (in other 
cases) to. 

Kely on, upon. 

Suitable to; for, before a present 
participle. 



Unite to, with. 

489. Into, and not in, must be used after verbs denoting entrance ; as, 
"He burst into [not in'\ the room." 



214 THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 

490. Between is applicable to two objects only; among should be used 
when more than two are referred to : as, " I will divide my money between 
George and Stephen; my land, among Jane, Ellen, and Sarah." 

To he Corrected, and then Parsed. 

Napoleon left the field, accompanied with Ney. Few volumes 
are now published on this subject, that are not accompanied by illus- 
trations. We arrived to Liverpool on the 1st instant. Crossing the 
Alps is attended by many difficulties. They died from cholera. The 
scenery of the Rhine is different to what most persons suppose. We 
ought to profit from the errors of others. It is our duty to reconcile 
with each other those who are at enmity. Do not interfere among 
other people's concerns. Some geographies are adapted for very- 
young pupils, while others are suitable for advanced classes. On 
his arrival, he divided his property among his two sons. I have 
three faithful friends, and have determined to distribute my money 
between them. There should be no quarrelling between us four. 
Dr. Kane penetrated far in the Arctic regions. Hannibal forced his 
way in Italy. Pass in the room, gentlemen. Go in the carriage and 
shut the door. 

Kule XXVII. Conjunctions. . 

491. Conjunctions connect single words, adjuncts, 
clauses, members, and sentences; as, "He reads or 
writes." " I sought the Lord, and he heard me." 

Remarhs. 

492. When conjunctions connect single words, they are words of the 
same class and in the same construction. Thus, nouns and pronouns in the 
nominative case are connected with nouns and pronouns in the nominative ; 
nouns and pronouns in the objective case are connected with nouns and 
pronouns in the objective ; verbs in the third singular, with verbs in the 
third singular; &c. — "Between you and I there should be no hard feel- 
ing; " this is wrong, because /, being connected with you by the conjunc- 
tion and, is in the same construction; and, since you is in the objective, 
governed by the preposition between, I should be changed to me, to be in the 
objective also. — "Henry and Mary's father." Henry and J/ar?/'s, being 
connected by anJ, are both in the possessive case, though the sign of the 
possessive is omitted with the former. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 215 

493. Two or more verbs connected by a conjunction have the same 
subject-nominative; as, "I can read, -write, and parse." The three verbs 
connected by the conjunction agree with the same nominative, /, in the 
first, singular. In such cases, the auxiliary is generally expressed with the 
first verb only, — as in the above example, in which can is omitted before 
write and parse. 

When the verbs have different nominatives, the conjunction may still 
be used; but it connects clauses or sentences instead of individual verbs; 
as, " I can read, btU my brother can write." 

494. There is a tendency to put verbs in connected clauses in the same 
tense, even though they have separate nominatives. This often leads to 
error; as, *' The alchemists taught that bodies were composed of salt, sul- 
phur, and mercury." Were composed is here used in the imperfect tense, 
because taught in the leading clause is in the imperfect; but, since general 
truths are expressed by the present, it should be changed to are composed. 

495. Conjunctions are often understood; as, " I knew Ithat} he would 
come." " We fought, [and] we conquered." 

496. After the eonjuction than (which is used after the comparative 
degree) there is generally an omission of some word or words necessary to 
ihe construction; as, " He that cometh after me is mightier than I," — that 
is, than I am. " He loveth his mother more than me," — that is, than he 
loveth me, " Csesar's soldiers were better disciplined than Pompey's," — 
that is, than Pompey's soldiers. 

It is oa some word thus omitted that the case of the noun or pronoun 
after thoM generally depends. In the first of the examples just given, / is 
in the nominative, because it is the subject of am understood. In the 
second, me is in the objective, because it is the object of the verb loveth un- 
derstood. In the third, Pompey's is in the possessive, governed by soldiers 
understood. When you have occasion to use a noun or pronoun after than, 
find on what omitted word its case depends, for errors are frequently made 
in this connection. 

497. After expressions which denote doubt, fear, or denial, the conjunc- 
tion that should be used; as, "I do not doubt that he is honest." It is a 
very common fault to use lest, or but thai, instead of thai, in such connec- 
tions; as, " I do not doubt but that he wUl succeed." " I fear lest he will 
not recover." 

498. A subsequent clause should not be connected by a conjimction 
•with two antecedent clauses, unless it is consistent in construction with 
each. " I am taller, but not so heavy, as my brother." This sentence is 
incorrect, because the subsequent clause, as my h'oiher, is inconsistent in 
construction with the first clause, / am taller. It should read thus: " I am 
taller than my brother, but not so heavy as he." 



216 THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Corresponding Conjunctions. 
499. Certain connectives in an antecedent clause or 
member are followed by certain conjunctions in a subse- 
quent one. A list of these coiTclatives follows : — 
1. Conjunctions corresponding with Conjunctions. 
Both — and; as, " Both gold and silver abound there." 

Eithei or ; as, " I will either send it or bring it. 

Neither — nor ; as, " He will neither listen nor obey." 
Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go or not, is uncertain." 
Though, although — yet, still, nevertheless ; as, " Though he slay me, yet 
will I trust in him." 
2. Conjunctions corresponding with Adverbs. 
As — as (expressing equality) ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 
As — so (expressing comparison); as, "-4s the stars, so shall thy 

seed be." 
8o — as (after a negative); as, " He is not so wise as he thinks himself 

to be." " Pompey was not so gi-eat a man as Caesar." 
So — that (expressing a consequence); as, " He was so fatigued that he 

could scarcely move." 
Not only — hut also; as, " He was not only rich, hut also generous." 
Bather — than; as, " I would rather work than beg." 
8. Conjunctions corresponding with the Adjective bvob. 

Such — as ; as, " We have seldom had such a season as the present." 
Such — that; as, " Such is his energy that he must succeed." 

Analysis and Parsing 
Different men are constituted by the Creator with different 
aptitudes for different pursuits, and with different dispositions 
towards those pursuits. A great public as well as private advantage 
arises from every one's devoting himself to that occupation which he 
prefers, and for which he is specially fitted. It is also evident that, 
by each nation's devoting itself to that branch of production for 
which it has the greatest facilities, either original or acquired, its own 
happiness will be better promoted than in any other manner. She is 
as old as I, but not so tall as her sister. I'd rather be a dog and bay 
the moon, than such a Roman. The old philosophers knew that man 
is an animal. I cannot decide whether to go or remain. Misfortune 
visits no one oftener than me. No one experiences misfortune oftener 
than I. 



BEVIEW QUESTIONS. 217 

7h be Corrected. 

There is no man so miserable who does not enjoy something. 
Neither he or I am able to do it. I know not if it was James or his 
brother that performed the work. He asked me if I would call and see 
his brother. The judge asked the foreman if the prisoner was guilty or 
not guilty. I have travelled both in Europe, in Asia, and in America. 
Quebec is not as far north as Paris. London is a larger, but not so 
splendid a city, as Paris. The camel has as much strength, and more 
endurance, than the horse. I would rather spend the summer in 
travelling as in working. Between you and I, there is something 
wrong there. Whom can we admire more than he ? No one can get a 
lesson better than her. "We rode much faster than them. About the 
commencement of the present century, it was discovered that water was 
composed of two gases. 

Bule XXVIII. Interjections. 

500. Inteijections have neither governing power nor 
dependence on other words. 



KEVIEW QUESTIONS. — EULES XXV.-XXVm. 

472. Repeat Rule XXV. 473. What do adverbs sometimes modify? 
474. How may adverbs be used ? 475. Show how an adverb is used as a 
noun. 476. For what are adverbs sometimes used ? What is said of such 
constructions? 477. What may be omitted? 478. What is said of the 
■use of from before whence, hence, and thence f 479. In what case is it proper 
to use two negatives in the same clause, and in what case not? 480. Un- 
der what circumstances may where be used for in which f 

481. On what does the position of adverbs depend? Show that 
a change in their position affects the meaning of a sentence. 482. How 
do adverbs generally stand ? 483. "What is the position of enough f 
484. Give the rule for never, alioays, often, and seldom. 485. What is the 
rule for an adverb used with the infinitive mode? 486. State and illus- 
trate the principle relating to the use of only and Tiot only, merely and 
chiefly. 

487. Repeat Rule XXVI. When should this rule be given ? 488. By 
what must certain words be followed? Give an example. By what is 
accompanied followed? Agree f Charge? Different? Disappointed? 



218 EXERCISE ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Provide? Reconcile? 489. By what must verbs denoting entrance be 
followed ? 490. How do between and among differ in their application ? 

491. Repeat Rule XXVII. 492. What is said of the single words con- 
nected by conjunctions? 493. When two or more verbs are connected by 
a conjunction, what do they have in common? With which is the 
auxiliary expressed ? When the verbs have different nominatives, what 
does the conjunction connect? 494. What error as regards the tense of a 
dependent verb is mentioned? 495. Give an example of the omission of 
a conjunction. 496. What generally accompanies the conjunction than? 
On what does the case of the word after than depend ? 

497. What conjunction should be used after expressions denoting 
doubt, fear, or denial ? 498, State the principle relating to a subsequent 
clause connected by a conjunction with two antecedent clauses. 499. Give 
the rule relating to corresponding conjunctions. By what is either fol- 
lowed? Though? Neither? Both? Whether? As? So? Rather? 
Not only? Such? 

600. Repeat Rule XXYHI. 



GENERAL EXERCISES ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

EXERCISE I. 

Analyze and parse the following sentences, which show how the same 
■words maybe used, in different connections, as different parts of speech: — 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. "We may expect a calm 
after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. 

Better is a little with content, than a great deal with anxiety. The 
gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which are stealing softly 
after them. A little attention will rectify some errors. 

Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. He labored to still 
the tumult. Still waters are commonly the deepest. A still is an in- 
strument used in the process of distillation. 

Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt casts a damp over our 
Bprightliest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound more than hard 
ones. 

Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. They are yet 
young, and must suspend their judgment yet a while. 

Many persons are better than we suppose them to be. The few 
and the many have their prepossessions. Few days pass without 
clouds. 



EXERCISE ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 219 

The hail was very destructive. Hail, Virtue ! thou source of every 
good ! "We hail you as friends. 

Have you seen the book that I purchased yesterday ? Give me that 
book. I study, that I may improve. 

"We had been to the ya/r, and seen 2ifair lady. 

Much money is corrupting. Think much and speak little. He has 
seen much of the world, and been much caressed. 

His years are more than hers ; but he has not more knowledge. The 
more we are blessed, the more grateful we should be. The desire of 
getting more is rarely satisfied. 

He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment. She is his inferior 
in sense, but his equal in prudence. 

Every being loves its like. We must make like spaces between the 
lines. Behave yourselves like men. "We are too apt to like pernicious 
company. He may go or stay as he likes. 

They strive to learn. He goes to and fro. To his wisdom we owe 
our privileges. The proportion is ten to one. 

He is esteemed both on his own account and on that of his parents. 
Both of them deserve praise. Both houses are for sale. 

Yesterday was a fine day. I rode out yesterday. I shall write to- 
morrow. To-morrow may be brighter than to-day. "We shall arrive 
to-day. 

You must either go or stay ; and you may do either, as you please. 
Behold! how pleasant it is to see the sun! I behold men as trees, 
walking. 

EXERCISE II. 

Analyze and parse the loUowing sentences from standard writers, em- 
bracing a variety of peculiar constructions : — 

As. As if. Such as. So. 

In singing as in piping you excel. — Dry den. 
Mad as I was, I could not bear his fate with silent grief. — Id. 
I live as I did, I think as I did, I love you as I did. — Swift. 
Barest thou be as good as thy word now ? — Shakespeare. 
As thou art a prince, I fear thee. — Id. 

The noise pursues me wheresoe'er I go. 
As fate sought only me. — Dry den. 
At either end it whistled as it flew. — Id. 

He answered their questions as (fit were a matter that needed it. — 
Locke. 



220 EXERCISE ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

Each man's mind has some peculiarity, as well as his face. — Id. 

These should be gently treated, as though we expected to be in their 
condition. — Sharp. 

As for the rest of those who have written against me, they deserve 
not the least notice. — Dry den. 

Is it not every man's interest, that there should be such a govern- 
ment of the world as designs our happiness ? — Tillotson. 

A bottle swinging at each side, as hath been said or sung. — 
Cowper. 

They pretend, in general, to great refinements as to what regards 
Christianity. — Addison. 

I viewed in my mind, so far as I was able, the beginning and pro- 
gress of a rising world. 

We think our fathers fools, so wise we 're grown ; 
Our wiser sons no doubt will think us so. 

Deliver us from the nauseous repetition of As and So, which some 
$o so writers, I may call them so, are continually sounding in our ears. 
— Felton. 

What. Whatever. Whatsoever. 

Let them say what they will, she will do what she lists. — 
Drayton. 

Mark what it is his mind aims at in this question, and not what 
words he expresses. — Locke. 

What ! canst not thou bear with me half an hour ? — Sharp. 
What if I advance an invention of my own, to supply the defect of 
our new writers 1 — Dry den. 

Then balmy sleep had charmed my eye to rest. 
What time the morn mysterious visions brings. — Pope. 
The enemy, having his country wasted, what by himself and what by 
the soldiers, findeth succor in no places. — Spenser. 

Whatever is read, differs from what is repeated. — Suoift. 
Whatsoever is first in the invention, is last in the execution. — 
Hammond. 

What ho ! thou genius of the clime, what ho ! — Dryden. 

WJien. While. Then. 

I was adopted heir by his consent, 

Since when his oath is broke. — Shakespeare. 



EXERCISE ON THE RULES OP SYNTAX. 221 

Pausing a while, thus to herself she mused. — Milton. 
One xchile we thought him innocent. — Ben Jonson. 
The then Bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his Majesty 
throughout that whole journey. — Clarendon. 

Thee then a boy within my arms I laid. — Dryden. 

Till then who knew the force of those dire dreams 1 — Milton, 

That. 
He wins me by that means I told you. — Shakespeare. 
What is that to us 1 See thou to that. — Bible. 
I'll know your business, that I will. — Shakespeare. 

Treat it kindly that it may 

Wish at least with us to stay. — Cowley. 
O that those lips had language ! — Cowper. 
There is no man that sinneth not. — Bible. 

Each other. One another. 

Loveliest of women ! heaven is in thy soul, beauty and virtue shine 
forever about thee, brightening each other. Thou art all divine.-— 
Addison. 

The storm beats the trees against one another. — Johnson. 

This is the message that ye heard from the beginning, that we 
should love one another. — Bible. 

Save. But. 

All the conspirators save * only he, 

Did that they did in envy of great Caesar. — Shakespeare. 

Night shades the groves, and all in silence lie. 

All save the mournful Philomel and I. — Young. 

For who but He who arched the skies 

Could raise the daisy's purple bud ? 
He that is washed needeth not, save to wash his feet. — Bible, 
And all desisted, all save him alone. — Wordsworth. 

The boy stood on the burning deck. 

Whence all but him had fled. — Remans. 

* Save and hut, when equivalent to except, are prepositions, and are 
followed by the objective case. Some writers, however, have used them as 
conjunctions, as in this sentence and the next two, in which they are fol- 
lowed by the nominative. This usage should be avoided. 



222 MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

EXERCISE III. 

Correct the miscellaneous errors in the following sentences, according 
to the rules and remarks that have been given : — 

I admire the generous sympathy of Lafayette, he who be- 
friended America. The tomb we visited was Washington's, the 
man who is the boast and pride of America. They slew Varus, he 
that was mentioned before. Him it is whom they persecuted. 
Whom do you think it is 1 Who do you think it to be 1 Man, 
though he has a great variety of thoughts, yet they are all within hi3 
own breast. Trouble, though it may be long delayed, yet it will 
surely come. 

There is a great many different ways of accumulating wealth. 
Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. What 
avails the best sentiments, if persons do not live suitably to them 1 
Thou, who art the Author of life, can restore it. There is many 
occasions in life in which silence and simplicity is true wisdom. 
Great pains * were taken to reconcile the parties with each other. 
He need not to proceed in such haste. He dare not to touch a hair 
of Catiline. It is easy to dare a man fight, but not so easy to meet him 
in the lists. 

To live soberly and piously are required of all. What signifies 
the counsel and care of teachers 1 One, added to nineteen, make 
twenty. Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. In 
unity consists the welfare and security of society. One or both of 
the scholars was present at the transaction. The deceitfulness of 
riches, or the cares of life, has choked the seeds of virtue in many a 
promising mind. The people rejoices in that which should give them 
sorrow. 

Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicioua 
companions. Who have I reason to esteem so highly as you ? Ye 
who are dead hath he quickened. And he that was dead set up 
and begun to speak. We have done no more than it was our duty to 
have done. I always intended to have rewarded my son. He ap- 
peared to have been a man of letters. It was a pleasure to have re- 
ceived this approbation. They whom he had most injured, he had the 
greatest reason to love. 

* Good authority justifies the use of a verb in either the singular or 
plural with the nonn pains. It seems to preponderate, however, in favor of 
the singular. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISE IN FALSE SYNTAX. 223 

I am not recommending thes^ kind of sufferings. By this means,* 
he had them more at vantage. There is no mean of escaping the per- 
secution. And with this amend he was content. Peace of mind is an 
honorable amend for the sacrifices of self-interest. Some men think ex- 
ceeding clearly, and reason exceeding forcibly. He acted in this busi- 
ness bolder than was expected. Every man and every woman were 
numbered. What black despair, what horror fills his mind ! 

His work is perfect; but his brothers is more than perfect. 
Which of them two persons was in fault ? We have a great many 
of them flowers in the garden. Each of them in their turn receive 
favors. Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the 
duties of morality and religion. Humility and love constitutes the 
essence of religion. Though the designs be laudable, it will involve 
much anxiety and labor. A large number of vessels is being built, 
the present season. The army is being concentrated to invade the 
capital. 

I intended to have called on my way home. I had hoped to 
have seen the affair amicably settled. It was said by somebody, I 
know not who, that Charles was the person who they imputed the 
crime to. Neither despise the poor or envy the rich. I should be 
obliged to him if he will gratify me. The relations are so uncer- 
tain, as that they require much examination. I am not afraid but 
what he will return. Take care lest he finds you off your guard. I 
would rather die of the sword than by cholera. Such a day as this, I 
feel too warmly. 

The old man was setting upon the ground on the side of the 
road. I differ entirely with you in this particular. He was re- 
solved of going to the Persian court. He was eager of recommend- 
ing it to his fellow citizens. He accused the ministers for betraying 
the Dutch. It is a use that perhaps I should have thought on. He 
was made much on at Argus. Neither of them shall make me swerve 
out of my path. 

The weakest of my eyes is now a little better ; but the strongest 
one is beginning to be effected. I expected my father, brother, and 
sister to have arrived ; but neither of them have yet come. Either 

* Means (in the sense of resources, instrument for gaining an end) is used 
m both the singular and the plural, but always has the plural form. The 
same may be said of amends. 



224 PUNCTUATION. 

of the three books you mention will ^answer. Nothing is more pref- 
erable than retirement from the bustle of the world. I respect no 
one more than he. If any of the scholars has drawed a better pic- 
ture than him, I am mistaken. Did you not know that insects had 
feeling 1 



CHAPTER XII. 

PUNCTUATION". 

501. Punctuation is the art of dividing written lan- 
guage by points, that its meaning may be readily under- 
stood. 

502. The points used in Punctuation are these : — 
Period, • Semicolon, ; 
Interrogation Point, 1 Comma, 9 
Exclamation Point, ! Dash, — 
Colon. : Parentheses, ( ) 

Brackets, [ ] 
Besides these, the following characters are used : — 
Apostrophe, ' Hyphen, • 

Quotation Points, " " 

503. A Period must be placed, — 

I. After every declarative and imperative sentence ; 
as, " Beauty is fleeting." " Take heed." 

II. After abbreviations ; as. Dr. for Doctor ; P. S. for 
postscrijjt. 

504. An Interrogation Point must be placed after 
every interrogative sentence and member ; as, " Is not 
nature beautiful ? " " Nature is beautiful ; shall we not, 
then, enjoy it? " 

505. An Exclamation Point must be placed, — 

I. After every exclamatory sentence and member; 



COLON AND SEMICOLON. 225 

as, " How beautiful is nature ! " " There is ttie Hudson ; 
how it sets off the landscape ! 

II. After every interjection except O, unless it is 
very closely connected with some other word or words ; 
as, " Alas ! alas ! I am undone." " O my Mend ! " " Hail, 
virtue ! " 

EXERCISE. 

Insert periods, interrogation points, and exclamation points wherever 
they are required in the following sentences : — 

Air is 828 times lighter than water — Were Mr Jones and his son 
Chas at the party — Dr Jas S Smith has gone to Nyack, Rockland Co, 
NY — Microscopes were first used in Germany — "What ho who comes 
— Where were looking-glasses first made — What a fine sight is a sun- 
rise on the ocean — Indeed that's passing strange —Who spoke — I do 
not know who spoke — He is well, is he — Louis XIV, of France, first 
adopted military uniforms — O Mr Hall, can you helieve this — What 
an impostor was Mohammed — How true is the saying, " Time flies " — 
The Alps abound in fine scenery ; how I would like to visit them. 

606. A Colon must be placed, — 

I. Between the great divisions of sentences, when sub- 
divisions occur, separated by the semicolon ; as, " I admire 
you, my friend ; I love you : but you must not expect me 
to make this sacrifice." 

II. Before a quotation or an enumeration of particu- 
lars, when introduced by the words thus^ these^ following^ 
or as follows ; as " The following branches are taught : 
Geography, History, Grammar, &c." 

507. A Semicolon must be placed, — 

I. Between the members of a compound sentence, 
unless they are very closely connected ; as, " Doubt and 
distraction are on earth; the brightness of truth is in 
heaven.'^ 

II. Between the great divisions of sentences, even 

15 



226 PUNCTUATION. 

though closely connected, when subdivisions occur sep- 
arated by the comma ; as, " America, otherwise called the 
New World, was discovered in 1492 ; but it was not set- 
tled till some years afterwards." 

III. Before the conjunction as, introducing an exam- 
ple, as in the last two paragraphs. 

TV. Between enumerated particulars, preceded by a 
colo-n, when each consists of several words ; as, " The value 
of a maxim depends upon these four things : the correct- 
ness of the principles it embodies ; the subject to which 
it relates ; the extent of its application ; and the ease with 
which it may be practically carried out. 

EXEECISE. 

Insert colons and semicolons wherever they are required. 

One thread does not make a rope one swallow does not make sum 
mer. — The Esquimaux feast on rancid fish ; the Russian peasants con- 
eider themselves well fed, if they have rye bread and cabbage soup but 
more civilized nations are not so easily satisfied. — Our stock of defen- 
sive weapons was as follows one old sword, dull, jagged, and rusty one 
musket without a lock and two pitchforks, which my grandfather had 
received from his ancestors. — He reasoned thus All men are mortal I 
am a man therefore I am mortal. — The poem begins with these words 
" Arms and the man I sing," &c. — He is my friend, who tells me my 
faults he is my enemy, who speaks of my virtues. — Trouble neglected 
becomes still more troublesome a stitch in time saves nine. — There are 
eight parts of speech the noun, the pronoun, &c. 

508. The Comma indicates less break in the connec- 
tion than any other point. It must be used according to 
the following rules : — 

I. Phrases, adjuncts, and clauses that are not re- 
strictive, — that is, that maybe left out without injury 
to the sense, — when they are introduced so as to 
break the connection between the component parts 



THE COMMA. 227 

of a sentence, must be set off on each side with the 
oomma; as, "He wishes, in fine, to see the world." 
"Mary, by the way, would like to hear from you." 
" Rome, which then ruled the world, was opposed to the 
measure." 

Adverbs and conjunctions thrown in as described above, and used to 
modify a whole proposition and not any particular word, are also set off on 
each side with the comma; as, "France, meanwhile, was arming for the 
struggle." " Linen, however, was first made in England." 

Phrases, adjuncts, clauses, and single words, like those described 
above, standing at the commencement of a sentence, take a comma after 
them; as, ^^ Moreover, mathematics disciplines the mind." ^^ Dazzled by 
pleasitre, the young forget their duty." " In general, the best men are the 
happiest." 

Eestrictive clauses must not be set off with the comma; as, " I love 
not the man that slanders his neighbor.^^ " We found her discontented and 
unhappy.'''' 

II. A comma must be placed before and, or, if, hut, 
that (when equivalent to in order that), and some other 
conjunctions, when they connect, not words, but short 
members and clauses, closely allied in sense, yet requir- 
ing separation by some point ; as, " Spring came, and 
the flowers bloomed more brightly than ever." " Avoid 
temptations, that you may not be led astray by their 
allurements." 

III. A comma often takes the place of a verb or a 
conjunction omitted for the sake of avoiding repetition ; 
as, " Sullivan commanded on the right flank ; Greene, 
on the left," — a comma taking the place of the verb com- 
manded^ omitted after Greene. " He came, saw, and con- 
quered;" a comma takes the place of the conjimction 
and, omitted after came, 

IV. A comma is placed after the logical subject of a 
verb, when it consists of a great many words or ends 
with a verb; as, "The anarchy that had grown up in 



228 PUNCTUATION. 

England among all classes during these long and bloody 
wars, now bore its fruit." " Whatever breathes, lives." 

V. "Words used in pairs take a comma after each 
pair ; as, " Brave but not rash, prudent but not timid, he 
soon gained the respect of his soldiers. " 

VI. A comma sets off a noun in apposition with 
some preceding noun, when it is accompanied with 
several modifying words ; as, " Harvey, the discoverer 
of the circulation of the blood, was an eminent EngUsh 
physician." 

VII. A comma generally separates words and clauses 
expressing contrast or opposition ; as, 

L^eral, not lavish, is kind Nature's hand. 

Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dvU. 

EXERCISE. 

Insert commas where they are required by the preceding rules. 

When the graces of novelty are worn off admiration is succeeded 
by indifference. The ox knoweth his owner and the ass his master's 
crib. He who preserves me to whom I owe my being whose I am and 
whom I serve is eternal. We hear nothing of causing the blind to 
see the lame to walk the deaf to hear the lepers to be cleansed. Tb^ 
miseries of poverty of sickness of captivity would without hope be 
unsupportable. To err is human ; to forgive divine. His wisdom not 
his talents attracted attention. Earth and sea rain and snow night 
and day summer and winter seed-time and harvest show forth the 
wisdom and goodness of the Creator. He was gigantic in knowledge 
in virtue in health. 

Johnson had repeated a psalm which he had translated during his 
affliction into Latin vei'ses. Cowper the gifted poet died in the 
year 1800. Miltiades the son of Cimon was an Athenian. Self- 
conceit presumption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a 
youth. Translated to Heaven Enoch knew not death. Far down 
in the depths of the ocean the mermaid plied her song. I will tell 
the story that you may know how I have been injured. A man so 
insensible to kindness as not to manifest the slightest gratitude for 



DASH, PARENTHESES, AND BRACKETS. 229 

the many favors you have bestowed on him is unworthy of any further 
notice. Those who were wounded have died. 
609. The Dash is used, — 

I. To denote that a sentence is unfinished, jfrom 
hesitation in the speaker or writer, or some sudden in- 
terruption^ as, " Pardon me for wounding your feel- 
ings, but — " 

II. To denote a break in the construction ; as, " The 
boy — oh ! where was he ? " 

III. To denote an unexpected transition from grave 
to comic style ; as, " He had a manly bearing and — an 
exceedingly red nose." 

TV. After other points, to make them denote a some- 
what higher degree of separation ; as, " To be overlooked 
and misunderstood, to be envied and persecuted, — such 
is too often the fate of genius." 

510. Parentheses are used to enclose words that 
explain or add to the leading proposition of a sentence, 
when introduced in such a way as to interfere with the 
harmonious flow; as, "The alligator (so the American 
crocodile is called) abounds in the bayous of Louisiana." 

511. Brackets are generally used in quoted passages 
to enclose some word improperly omitted by the author, 
to con-ect a mistake, or to introduce some observation or 
explanatory word that does not belong to the quotation ; 
as, " Few good men [the author might have said none at 
all] can escape calumny." 

EXERCISE. 

Insert dashes, p.arentheses, and brackets, wherever they are required. 

Some men are afflicted with a grievous consumption of victuals. 
She is very intelligent, very refined, very afiuble, and withal very 
fat. " Here comes " " Your obedient servant," broke in my friend. 



230 PUNCTUATION. 

You are a a a I know not what to call you. This ignis fatuus for so 
we might rightly call it led many to their destruction. Byron and the 
same may be said of many a better man was the cause of his own 
uuhappiness. This admitted and admitted it will have to be by honest 
minds I proceed to the next point of the argument. My brother is 
eager after for going. The finest oranges which that I ever ate came 
from St. Michael's. Just as the twig is bent alas ! it is too often bent 
the wrong way the tree's inclined. 

612. The Apostrophe is used, — 

I. To denote the omission of one or more letters in a 
word ; as, o'er for over, ^mid for amid, thro' for through, 

II. As the sign of the possessive case; as, man^s, 
men^s. 

III. To form the plurals of letters, figures, and signs; 
as, -}-'s, «'s, 7's. 

513. The Hyphen is used, — » 

I. To connect simple words uniting to form a com- 
pound; as, nut-brown, ever-to-be-remembered, ill-natured. 

When the compound comes into very common use, the hyphen is often 
omitted ; as in fireman, myself, railroad. 

II. To connect the syllables into which a word is 
separated, particularly at the end of a line ; as, " Integri- 
ty is its own reward." In-teg-ri-ty. 

When there is not room to get the whole of a word in a line, it must 
be divided according to syllables, and, the hyphen having been placed 
after a complete syllable, the rest is carried over to the commencement of 
a new line. 

514. Quotation Points are used to enclose a passage 
quoted from a writer or speaker in his own words ; as, 
Cowper says, " Oh for a lodge in some yast wilderness!" 

Single Quotation Points ( ' ' ) are used to enclose a quotation within a 
quotation, or one in which the words of the writer or speaker are slightly 
altered; as, "Cowper says, ' Oh for a lodge in some vast wilderness I ' '* 



MARKS OF REFERENCE, ETC. 231 

EXERCISE. 

Insert apostrophes, hyphens, and quotation points wherever they aie 
required. 

Well sit neath willows by the waters edge. Id not give a 
hapenny for such an ill tempered cur. Een tho the heavens should 
fall, III have no fear. As we approached the citys gates on that 
never to be forgotten day, my companions courage forsook him. 
Charless hat is better than Moses. The oftquoted passage, God tem- 
pers the wind to the shorn lamb, is taken from Stemes Sentimental 
Journey. I will say to you, continued my friend, what an old philoso- 
pher once said. Know thyself. Tired natures sweet restorer, as Young 
poetically styles sleep, is oerpowering me. A gem, says the Chinese 
proverb, is not polished without rubbing ; nor is a man perfected with- 
out trials. 

Other marks are fi-equently used in printing and 
writing. The principal are, — 

Marks of Reference. 

The Paragraph, If The Dagger, t 

The Section, § The Double Dagger, X 

The Asterisk, * The Parallels, || 

Marks of Ellipsis to show that something has been 

omitted ; as, K g, K * * g, K . . g, for King. 

Long Dash, ( ) Ditto Marks, (") 

Stars, ( **** ) Caret, ( ^ ) 

Dots, ( ) 

The Caret is used only in manuscripts, to direct attention to something 
written above the line ; as, I have home. 

A 

Marks of Pronunciation. 

The cedilla ( g ), placed under c to indicate the sound of s ; as, faqade^ 
garqon. 

The tilde (n.), placed over n to indicate the sound of ny; as, canon^ 
senor. 

The diuresis ( •• ) placed over the latter of two contiguous vowels to 
show that they must be pronounced separately ; as, aeronaut. 

^The quantity marks, macron or long sound (-), as holy; the breve or 
short sound ( "), as, glorious. 



232 REVIEW QUESTIONS. 

The marks of accent, grave ( ' ), acute ( ' ), and circumflex ( ^); as, 
eoTtfjlict, bruised. Will you walk or ride t 

Other Marks. 

The brace (. — ^— ^) to connect terms having a common relation. 
The index {\X^) to direct attention. 



EEVIEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTER XH. 

601. What is punctuation ? 502. Name the points used in punctuation. 
What other characters are employed? 503. Where must a period be 
placed? 504. An interrogation point ? 505. An exclamation point ? 506. 
Where must a colon be placed? 507. Where must a semicolon be placed? 
508. What does the comma indicate ? Give the rule for the use of the 
comma relating to phrases, adjuncts, and clauses that are not restrictive. 
What is the rule relating to certain adverbs and conjunctions ? How are 
these phrases, adjuncts, &c., punctuated, when they stand at the com- 
mencement of a sentence ? What is said of restrictive clauses ? 

Give the rule for the use of the comma before conjunctions. Give the 
rule for the use of the comma in place of an omitted word. Give the rule 
relating to the logical subject. Give the rule relating to words used in 
pairs. Give the rule relating to a noun in apposition. What is the comma 
sometimes used to separate ? 509. For what is the dash used ? 510. For 
■what are parentheses used ? 511. For what are brackets used ? 

512. For what is the apostrophe used ? 513. For what is a hyphen 
used ? When is the hyphen omitted in compound words ? What must be 
done when there is not room to get the whole of a word in a line ? 514. 
For what are quotation points used? Single quotation points? Name the 
marks of reference. Name the marks of ellipsis. When is the caret used? 
Name the marks of pronunciation, and state the office of each. When is 
the brace used ? The index ? 



PAET IV. 

li K T T EJ R S. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

CLASSES, SOUNDS, AND COMBINATIONS OP LETTEES. 

515. A Letter is a character employed in writing or 
printing, to represent some sound of the human voice 
used in speaking. 

Before the invention of letters, pictures and symbols, called Hiero- 
glyphics, were used to convey ideas. A battle, for example, was repre- 
sented by a picture of two men fighting. Eternity was denoted by a cir- 
cle ; an appropriate symbol, for a circle, like eternity, has neither begin- 
ning nor end. 

The number of letters is different in different languages. The letters 
of any given language arranged in order are called its Alphabet. 

516. That part of Grammar which treats of letters is 
called Orthography. 



SECTION I. 

Classes op Letters. 

517. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six let- 
ters, which are divided into two classes, known as Vowels 
and Consonants. 

518. A Yowel is a letter that represents a free, unin- 
terrupted sound. 

519. A Consonant is a letter that does not represent a 
free, uninterrupted sound. 



234 SYLLABLES. — ACCENT. 

520. Five of the letters are always vowels, — a, e, i, o, 
and u. Two, w and y, are sometimes vowels and some- 
times consonants. The remaining nineteen are always 
consonants. 

Since a vowel represents a complete sound, it can be uttered alone. 
Try whether this is so with a, e, i. Since a consonant does not represent 
a complete sound, it cannot be fully uttered without the aid of a vowel. 
Try whether this is so with b : you will find that it cannot be sounded till 
a vowel is joined to it, — b-a, b-e, b-i, b-o, b-u. Try, in the same way, to 
eound^, <, d. 



SECTION II. 
Syllables. — Accent. 
521. A Syllable is one or more letters forming a com- 
plete sound, and uttered with one impulse of the voice ; 
as, O, on, one, once. 

A syllable may constitute a whole word, as in the 
above examples : or part of a word ; as, on-ly, one- 



522. A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllable ; 
as, on. 

A word of two syllables is called a Dissylable; 
as, li'On. 

A word of three syllables is called a Trisyllable; 
as, li-on-ess. 

A word of more than three syllables is called a 
Polysyllable ; as, li-on-ess-es, in-de-struc-ti-bil-i-ty. 

523. It was said above, that w and y are sometimes 
consonants and sometimes vowels. They are consonants 
when they come before a vowel in the same syllable; 
and otherwise, vowels. They are consonants in the 
words wine, jet, re-^ard, un-joke, &g. They are vow- 
els in the words now, praj, re-new, bold-ly, y-clepty 
show-y, &c. 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 235 

524. "When a word consists of two or more syllables, 
one of tliem is naturally uttered with more force than the 
rest. This stress of the voice is called Accent. 

In the words profit, remedy, temporary, &c., the first syllable receive* 
the stress of the voice, and is therefore said to be accented. In the words 
dispute, propeller, laborious, &c., the second syllable receives the stress of 
the voice, and is said to be accented. In the words palisade, California, 
&c., the third syllable receives the stress of the voice, and is said to be 
accented. 

The acute accent ( ' ), placed after a syllable, denotes that it receives 
the stress of the voice ; as, thunf-der, rec-i-ta'-tion. 



SECTION III. 
Sounds of the Letters. 

525. Each vowel has several different sounds ; as, a in 
the words fate^fat, all, arm, what. 

The sound of a in each of the above examples may be obtained by 
pronouncing the whole word first, and then leaving off the sounds of all 
the letters except a. 

526. Most of the consonants have one sound only, but 
some have more than one ; as, s in sit and his, 

527. C and G have two sounds each. 

C is said to be soft when it sounds like s, as in the word recite ; kardj 
when it sounds like 7c, as in the word cat. 

G is said to be soft when it has the sound of j, as in gin, gesture. In 
other cases, it is hard, as in go, gun. 

As a general rule, c and g are soft before the vowels e, «, and y, hard 
before a, o, and u. 

528. A letter is said to be sile72t when it is not sound- 
ed ; as, h in hour, e in fate, h in dumb. 



SECTION IV. 
Subdivisions of Consonants. 
529. The consonants are subdivided into Mutes and 
Semivowels. 



236 DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

A Mute is a consonant that cannot be uttered at all 
without the aid of a vowel. To this class belong b, c 
hard, d, g hard, h^p^ q^ and t. 

A Semivowel is a consonant that can be imperfectly 
uttered without the aid of a vowel. To this class belong 
c soft,/, g soft, A, J, ?, m, n^ r, 5, v, a;, and 2. 

530. X, m, n, r, are also called Liquids, because their 
sound flows with peculiar ease. 

In the following tabular arrangement of consonant sounds, the classes 
show the position of the organs in emitting the sound, the orders show the 
relative amount of breath used, and the way in which it escapes. 

Class I. Class II. Class III. Class IV, 

Orders. Labials. Linguo-Dentals. Dentals. Palatals. 

1. Smooth, P t k 

1. Middle, b d g 

3. Rough, V,. {:jf«)'f/^)} ^,r U 

4. Aspirates, f, wh s, sh h 

5. Nasals, m n ng 
Double Consonants, z x 



SECTION V. 
Diphthongs and Triphthongs. 

531. A Diphthong consists of two vowels united in one 
syllable ; as, oa in oar^ ee in meet^ ow in now^ ay in day, 

532. A Diphthong is said to be Proper when both of 
its vowels are sounded ; as, ou in noun^ oi in toil. 

A Diphthong is said to be Improper when but one of 
its vowels is sounded; as, ea in beat, ay in may. 

533. A Triphthong consists of three vowels united in 
one syllable ; as, eau in beauty, ions in pugnacious. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 237 

EXERCISE. 

A list of words follows. 1. TeU, with respect to each, whether it is a 
monosyllable, dissyllable, trisyllable, or polysyllable. 2. Tell on which 
syllable the accent falls. 3. Pick out the silent letters. 4. Pick out the 
diphthongs, and tell whether they are proper or improper. 5. Pick out the 
triphthongs. 6. TeU whether w and y, as they successively occur, are 
consonants or vowels. 7. When c and g occur, tell whether they are hard 
or soft. 

Millionaire, treacherously, get, viewing, wonderful, dewy, youtliful,_ 
Sicily, gregarious, goat, gymnasium, phlegmatic, recitation, wristband, 
yellow, Knickerbocker, Yankee, cite, beautifully, yawned, woodpecker, 
impenetrability, peaceable, buoy, yclad, spacious, oyster, automaton, 
egregious, historically, newly, herb, hurricane, browbeat, wooest, early, 
analogically, Ptolemy, gaol, gallop. 



SECTION VI. 
Capital Letters. 

534. As regards their form, letters are divided into two 
classes, Small Letters and Capitals. Almost all printed 
and written matter consists of small letters ; but, for the 
purpose of distinction, capitals are used at the commence- 
ment of words in certain cases. 

Hules for the Use of Capitals. 
Begin with a capital, — 

1. Every sentence. 

2. Proper nouns, and common nouns personified ; as, 
George, YorTc, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, hail, 
bounteous Autumn ! 

The names of the days of the week should begin with capitals; those 
of the seasons with small letters. The names of the points of the compass 
when denoting direction should commence with small letters; when applied 
to certain districts of a country or their inhabitants, with capitals; as, 
Monday^ summer^ The wind bloics north, The South is ardent and impetuous. 

3. Titles of office and honor, and also the names of 
religious sects and public bodies; as, Governor Jones, 



238 CAPITAL LETTERS. 

Judge, Esquire, Baptists, Friends, Congress, the Supreme 
Judicial Court. 

4. Adjectives derived from proper nouns; as, Euro- 
pean, Roman, Newtonian. 

5. Appellations of the Deity and personal pronouns 
standing for His name; as, God, Jehovah, the Almighty, 
the Supreme Being, Providence, the Messiah, the Soly 



6. Direct quotations forming complete sentences; as, 
" Our great Lawgiver says, ' Take up thy cross daily, and 
follow me.' " 

Quotations introduced indirectly by a conjunction need not commence 
with a capital ; as, " Solomon observes that ' pride goeth before destruc- 
tion.' " 

7. The nouns and other important words in the titles 
of books ; as, JohnsorCs Dictionary of the English Lanr- 
guage ; Rollings Ancient History. 

8. Every line of poetry. 

9. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, must be 
written in capitals. 

10. Words that are the principal subjects of discourse, 
or that denote well-known events, histoncal eras, public 
documents, or extraordinary phenomena; as, the Revo- 
lution, the Middle Ages, Magna Charta, the Aurora 
Borealis. 

EXERCISE. 

In the following sentences, use capitals when they are required by the 
above rule. If a capital is improperly used, substitute a small letter for it. 

Employ thy time Well, to-morrow's sun may Never rise. Portu- 
gal and Spain constitute what is called the peninsula. Pride breakfasted 
with plenty, dined with poverty, and supped with infamy. The hunga- 
rian chief next crossed the danube and sought to Escape into turkey. 
The ozark mountains cross the Boundary that separates missouri from 
arkansas. great is the lord. General Brown and major morgan have 
been invited to dine with the private secretary of president buchanan. 



SPELLING. 239 

On monday, September 5th, the steamer waterwitch will be 
launched ; o how i would like to see It ! The omnipotent father has 
made all these worlds. In howitt's " homes and haunts of the most 
eminent british poets," i have read an Interesting Account of Joanna 
baillie. Smile on me, beauteous spring. Poor richard says "three 
removes are as bad as a fire." Poor Kichard says that " three removes 
are as bad as a fire." 

he that by the plough would thrive, 
himself must either hold or drive. 

The court of common pleas is now sitting in the city hall. The 
honorable justice nodine observes that There is great uncertainty in the 
Law. The central american question seemed at one time about to 
embroil the united states in a war with several of the leading powers of 
europe, dunderdale's " Tour through the argentine republic " has been 
pronounced a capital Book by the braalian minister. 



CHAPTER XIV. 

SPELLING. 

535. Spelling is the art of expressing words by their 



proper letters. 



SECTION I. 
EuLES FOR Spelling. 

536. So arbitrary is the spelling of English words, and 
so inconsistent oftentimes with their sound, that but little 
assistance can be derived from rules. The following, 
however, should be remembered : — 

Rule I. — Monosyllables ending with f^ ?, or 5, pre- 
ceded by a single vowel, double their final letter ; d^B^stiff"^ 
hill, miss. 

Except of, if, as, gas, has, was, yes, is, his, this, us, pus, thus. 

Rule II. — Words ending with any other consonant 



240 FORMATION OP DERIVATIVES. 

than f^ I, or s, do not double their final letter ; as, rub, 
hat, in. 

Except ebb, add, odd, egg, inn, bunn, err, purr, butt, buzz, fuzz. 
Rule III. — Compounds retain the spelling of the 
simple words that compose them; as, fireman, school- 
master. 

Exceptions. — In compounds whose parts are so perfectly incorpo- 
rated that they have but one syllable accented, full and all drop one I ; as, 
cm^ful, always. 



SECTION II. 
FoEMATiON OP Derivatives. 

537. Derivatives are formed from simple or compound 
words by the addition of a letter or letters ; as, horse, 
horse-s ; horseman, horseman-ship. 

638. Words from which derivatives are formed are 
called Radicals. 

539. The letter or letters added to form a derivative 
may be placed before or after the radical ; in the former 
case, they are called a Prefix ; in the latter, a SuflSx. 

Thus, a^t is a radical ; transact is a derivative formed by adding the 
prefix trans ; actor is a derivative formed by adding the suffix or. 

By learning the meaning of the principal prefixes and suffixes, we at 
once become acquainted with the signification of a great number of deriv- 
atives. Thus, if we know that or means one who, we shall also know that 
actor means one who acts ; visitor, one who visits ; instructor, one who instructs, 
&c., &c. 

640. The prefixes are derived mainly from the Saxon, Latin, and Greek. 
They are classed below according to their origin. 

List of the Principal Prefixes, 

Saxon. 

A, on, in, to, at ; as, afoot, on foot. 

Be, near, by, at, on, to make ; as, becalm, to make calm. 

Fore, before ; as, yo?*etell, to tell before. 

Mis, wrong ; as, misconduct, wrong conduct. 



LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL PREFIXES. 241 

Out, beycmd, more ; as, OM^run, run beyond. 
Over, above, beyond, too ; cwerhang, hang above. 
Un (before adjectives), not; wncertain, not certain. 

(before nouns), to taJce off; as, «ramask, to take off a mask. 
Under, beneath, infer'ior ; as, under-tea.ch.er, inj'erior teacher. 
Up, aloft, on high ; as, «plift, lift aloji. 
With, against, from ; as, loiihstand, to stand againsL 

Latin, 

A, ab, abs,yro77j; as, avert, turnyrom. 

Ad, a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, at, to ; as, q/'fix, fix to. 

Ante, before; as, a?2tecedent, going before. 

Circum, around; as, c^Vc^i??^navigate, navigate around. 

Con, CO, cog, col, com, cor, with, together ; as, compress, press together* 

Contra, counter, against ; as, counteract., act against. 

De, down, from ; as, c?educe, draw from. 

Dis, di, dif, apart, not, to deprive of; as, dislike, not to like. 

E, ex, ef, ec, out, out of, from ; as, eject, cast out. 

Extra, beyond, more than ; as, extraordinary, more than ordinary. 

In, im, ig, il, ir (before adjectives), not; as, inactive, not active. 

(before verbs), in, into, to make ; as, «?rebrown, to make brown. 
Inter, between, among ; as, interYene, come between. 
Ob, oc, of^ op, before, against, in the way; as, occluse, closed against f 

obtrude, thrust in the way. 
Per, through ; as, pervade, go through. 
Fre, before; as, prejudge, judge Je/bre. 
Fro, for, fortJi, forward ; as, pronoun, for a noun. 
Re, again, back; as, reenter, enter again. 
Sub, sue, suf, sug, sup, sus, under, from ; as, SMSscribe, write tt 
Super, above, over ; as, sa^erscribe, write over. 
Trans, across, over, beyond ; as, transfer, carry over. 

Greek. 

A, an, without, want of; as, anonymous, without name. 
Anti, against; as, aw^zpathy, feeling against. 
Apo, aph,/ro7ra ; aphelion, (the point)yro?» the sun. 
Dia, Hirough ; as, cKameter, measure through. 
Hemi, half; as, henuB^h&xe, half a sphere. 
Hyper, over ; as, %j3ercritical, over critical. 
Peri, around; as, perimeter, measure around. 
Syn, sy, syl, sym, together, zdth ; as, s^?«pathy, feeling toiA 
16 



242 LIST OP THE PRINCIPAL SUFFIXES. 

EXERCISE. 

Spell the following derivatives ; analyze them and give their meaning^ 
according to the following model : — 

Unnatural. — Unnatural is a derivative, formed of the radical naU 
uraJ and the prefix wn, meaning not ; wwnatural, not natural. 

Abed, ashore, beside, foreknow, misguide, miearrange, ontshoot, 
overleap, ungracious, uncrown, unrobe, under-agent, undergo, upraise, 
withhold, adjoin, assign, accredit, antechamber, antedate, circum-me- 
ridian, conjoin, cotenant, contradistinguished, counter-current, disarm, 
express, extra-regular, ignoble, irresponsible, immature, indelicate, 
impress, imbitter, prewarn, premeditate, recall, suppress, super- 
abundant, transatlantic, antifederal, antimason, antichristian, anteroom, 
hemicycle, hypercriticise, bespot, forewarn, mismanagement, withdraw. 



List of the Principal Suffixes, 

S, es, more than one ; as, boys, Tuore than one boy, 

Er, more ; as, brighter, more bright. 

Est, most ; as, brightest, most bright. 

S, es, does ; as, walks, does walk. 

Est, dost ; as, walkesi, dost walk. 

Ed, did; as, walkecZ, did walk. 

Ing, continuing to ; as, walkira^r, continuing to walk. 

Ate, en, ize, to make ; as, harden, to make hard. 

Ar, er, or, an, ian, one who ; as, beggar, one who begs. 

Ess, ine, ix, a female ; lioness, a female lion. 

Ness, ty, ity, the quality or state of being ; softness, the state of behig 

soft. 
Ion, ment, the act of; as, agitation, the act of agitating. 
Al, ic, an, ian, ar, a.r j, pertaining to; as, heroic, pertaining to a hero. 
Ous, ful, y, full of; as, ^perilous, full q/" peril. 
Able, ible, that may be ; as, eatable, that may be eaten. 
Ly, in a — manner ; as, warm/?/, in a warm manner. 
Less, without, that cannot be ; as, penniZess, without a permy. 
Ish, some, somewhat ; as, sweetish, somewhat sweet. 
Y, ry, ery, the art or practice of; as, glutton?/, the practice of a glutton. 
Ward, towards ; as, north?/?ar(?, towards the north. 
Ive, ory, tending to ; as, instructt?;e, tending to instruct. 
Let, et, ule, cule, a Utik; as, brookfei, a little brook. 



BULES FOR THE FORMATION OF DERIVATIVES. 243 

EXERCISE. 

Spell the following derivatives ; analyze them and give their meaningi 
according to the following model : — 

Wishing, — Wishing is a derivative, formed of the radical loish and 
the suffix ing, meaning continuing toj wishing, continuing to wish. 

Boxes, plajs, warmer, warmest, wanders, pushes, wanderest, wan- 
dering, wandered, pushed, sweeten, invalidate, christianize, passer, 
sailor, baroness, heroine, executrix, sweetness, oddity, action, baronial, 
hysterical, dangerous, courageous, spiteful, fleshy, wonderful, drinkable, 
instructible, politely, gallantly, passionless, tameless, tartish, cookery, 
eastward, sportive, floweret, streamlet, globule, animalcule, formal, fish- 
ery, utterable, owner, smaller, ownest, smallest, humorous, lonesome, 
darksome, acknowledgment. 

Rules for the Formation of Derivatives. 

541. When a prefix is added to a radical, no change 
is made in the latter. When a suffix is added, sometimes 
a change is made, and sometimes not. 

Thus, when we add er to hat, we double the t, — hat, 
hatter ; but when we add er to heat, we make no change, 
— heat, heater. 

642. In forming derivatives with suffixes, the following 
are the principal rules to be observed : — 

Rule I. — The final e of a radical is rejected before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, ride, rid-er ; move, 
mov-ing. 

Exception I. — Final e, when preceded by c or g, is not rejected before 
a suffix beginning with a or o ; a.^, peace, peaceable ; courage, courageous. 

Exception II. — Final e, when preceded by e or o, is not rejected before 
ing ; as, see, seeing ; hoe, hoeing. 

Remarlc. — Final e is sometimes rejected when the suffix begins with a 
consonant; as, true, truly ; judge, judgment. 

Rule II. — The final consonant of a monosyllable, 
if preceded by a single vowel, is doubled before a 
suffix beginning with a vowel; as, sin, sinner; heg^ 
begg-ing. 



244 RULES FOB THE FORMATION OF DERIVATIVES. 

Remark. — Observe that the final consonant, if preceded by two vow« 
els, is not doubled ; as, heat, beaten ; toil, toiling. 

Rule III. — The final consonant of any word ac- 
cented on the last syllable, if preceded by a single 
vowel, is doubled before a suffix beginning with a vowel ; 
as, re/b/, referr-ed ; repel' ^ repell-iyig. 

Remark. — There are about fifty words ending in ?, which, though ac- 
cented on the first syllable, are made by many to double their final conso- 
nant before a suffix commencing with a vowel ; as, travel., traveUer ; quarrel, 
guar eliding. Others prefer the single I, which is more in accordance with 
analogy; as, traveler, quarreling. 

Rule IV. — The final y of a radical, when preceded 
by a consonant, is changed into ^, before a suffix that 
does not commence with i ; as, happy., happier ; glory, 
glorious. 

Remark. — Observe that, if the final y is preceded by a vowel, or the 
suffix commences with i, there is no change; as, enjoy, enjoyed; cry, 
crying. 

Rule V. — Words ending with II drop one I before the 
suffixes less and ly ; as, skill, skil-less ; hill, hil-ly. 

EXERCISE. 

I. Write out the derivatives formed from the following radicals by 
adding ing- : — Thrive, face, rage, sow, spin, hit, stop, stoop, propel, 
abhor, debar, hinder, sunder, deter, shut, shoot, espy, cry, play, agitate, 
fee, see, shoe, buy, lie,* die.t dye.J 

II. Write out the derivatives formed from the following radicals by 
adding able : — Surmount, peace, trace, value, move, efface, secure, 
suit, ply, destroy, admire, measure, deny. 

III. Write out the derivatives formed from the following radicals by 
adding ous : — Danger, continue, courage, outrage, parsimony, cere- 
mony, contumely, contumacy. 

IV. Write out the derivatives formed from the following radicals by 
adding ed : — Care, remove, thin, pass, hop, hope, hoop, heap, tender, 
commit, thunder, detest, fee, woo, tarry, decry, prey, toy, sigh, 
fancy, obey, huzza, whip, allure, stay, subdue, render, inter, emit, 
occur. 

♦Irregular, — lying. f Irregular, — dying. J Irregular, — dyeing. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 245 

EEVTEW QUESTIONS ON CHAPTEES XIH., XIV. 

515. What is a letter? What were used to convey ideas before the 
invention of letters ? What is meant by the alphabet of a language ? 
616. What is orthography? 517. Into what two classes are letters divided? 
518. What is a vowel ? 519. What is a consonant ? 520. Which letters 
are always vowels ? Which are always consonants ? Which are vowels 
in some words and consonants in others? Can a be uttered alone? 
Can h ? 

521. What is a syUable ? What may a syllable constitute ? 522. What 
is a monosyllable? A dissyllable? A trisyllable? A polysyllable? 
523. When are w and y consonants, and when vowels? 524. What is 
accent ? Mention six words in which the accent is on the first syllable. 
Six in which it is on the second. Six in which it is on the third. How is 
the syUable that receives the stress of the voice denoted ? 

525. How many sounds has each vowel? Give examples with a. 
526. How many sounds have the consonants? 527. How many sounds 
have c and g f When is c said to be soft, and when hard ? When is g 
said to be soft, and when hard ? As a general rule, before what vowels are 
c and g soft ? Before what vowels are they hard ? 528. When is a letter 
said to be silent? 

529. How are the consonants subdivided? What is a mute? Men- 
tion the mutes. What is a semivowel? Mention the semivowels. 530. 
Mention the liquids. Why are they so called? 531. Of what does a diph- 
thong consist? 532. When is a diphthong said to be proper ? When im- 
proper ? 533. Of what does a triphthong consist ? 534. As regards their 
form, how are letters divided ? Give the ten rules for the use of capitals. 

535. What is spelling? 536. Repeat Eule I., and the exceptions. 
Eepeat Eule II., and the exceptions. Eepeat Eule III., and the excep- 
tions. 537. How are derivatives formed ? 538. What are radicals ? 539. 
What is a prefix ? What a suffix? Give examples. What is the advan- 
tages of learning the meaning of the prefixes and suffixes? 540. From 
what languages are the prefixes mainly derived? 

541. When a prefix is added to a radical, what change is made in the 
latter? Is any change made when a suffix is added? 542. Eepeat Eule 
I., relating to final e. What two exceptions are there to this rule ? Is e 
ever rejected when the suffix begins with a consonant? Eepeat Eule H., 
relating to the final consonant of a monosyllable. Eepeat Eule III., relat- 
ing to the final consonant of words accented on the last syllable. What 
remark is made about some words ending with I ? Eepeat Eule IV., re- 
lating to final y. Eepeat Eule V., relating to words ending with U. 



PART V. 
oo]nj:i>osition'.» 



CHAPTER j:V. 

Genebal Directions to Teachers. — The exercise of Com- 
position should be commenced as soon as the pupil has fairly entered 
upon the study of Grammar. Rules for punctuation and capitals will 
be found in another part of this book, and may be learned at the pleas- 
ure of the teacher. The pupil should apply the rules as fast as they 
are learned. At the outset, little more should be required beyond good 
English sentences than correct spelling and general neatness. The ex- 
ercises are progressive, and are designed to furnish object-lessons as a 
means of developing thought. Like all object-lessons, they should be 
commented upon and amplified by the teacher, until the pupil has 
learned to think for himself. The pupil should not be allowed to pass 
from one exercise to another until he has learned the preliminary matter 
well. In the judgment of the Editor, there is matter enough in this 
part to furnish the pupil an exercise in composition each week for a 
whole year. As the pupil progresses, he should be taught to be more 
and more critical, until he can readily apply all the rules of Syntax, and 
the directions in Exercises XIII. and XIV. 

EXERCISE. — SIGHT. 

Direction. — Place an object before you. Examine 
it carefully with your eyes alone. Then write what you 
have learned. 

* For a portion of the following pages, the author is indebted to a 
small work on Composition, published in Edinburgh, and edited by W. & B. 
Chambers. 

246 



TASTE. — SMELL. 247 

Modd. A Piece of Sealing-wax. 

This piece of sealing-wax is about four inches long, half an inch 
broad, and a quarter of an inch in thickness. It is of a very bright red, and 
stamped with the name of the manufacturer. Its surface shines like glass, 
so that I suppose it is smooth, though I cannot be sure of this without 
touching it. One end is rough, as if broken, and the other is smoked from 
having been in the flame of a candle. 

Describe in a similar manner the following objects : — 
A book. An inkstand A chair. 

A pen-knife. A sheet of paper. A looking-glass. 



EXERCISE n. — TASTE. 

DiRECTiOK-. — Taste the object, and write the result. 

Modd. A Cup of Tea. 

The substance in the cup is called tea, though, properly speaking, it 
is only an infasion of the leaves of that plant. Its taste is peculiar, but 
pleasant. It is naturally somewhat bitter, but the sugar prevents it from 
being unpleasantly so. The flavor is aromatic and agreeable. 
Olyects to be described : — 

Onion. Vinegar. Coffee. Strawberries. 

Potato. Honey. Liquorice. Apples. " 

Lemon. Orange. Cinnamon. Cheese. 

EXERCISE in. — SMELL. 

DiRECTioi^". — Exercise the sense of smell on the 
given object, and write the result. 

Modd, A Full-blown Rose. 

This beautiful flower is called the rose. Its buds are gradually open- 
ing, and from each proceeds a most delightful odor. But the chief perfume 
is from the petals of the full-blown flower. The essence which is extracted 
from the rose-leaves forms a fragrant scent termed otto of roses. 

Objects to be described : — 
Violet. Pine-apple. Strawberry. Burnt feather. 

Peach. Lilac. Geranium, New-mown hay. 

Orange. Cologne, Hartshorn. Tobacco-smoke. 



248 COMPOSITION. 

EXEKCISE IV. — FEELING. 
DiEECTiON. — With eyes shut, touch the object, and 
"Write the result. 

Modd. An Octavo Volume. 
I perceive by feeling, that this book is about ten inches long, six 
broad, and three in thickness. The book is smooth and hard, with raised 
ornaments on the back. I think it has been near the fire, for it feels som©« 
■what warm. 

Objects to be described ; — 

A door. A bell. Paper. Woollen cloth. 

Sponge. A hair-glove. Silk. A doll. 

Bread. Marble. A shilling. Soap. 

EXERCISE V. — HEARING. 
Derection. — Strike the object, or Usten to its natu- 
ral sounds, and describe what you hear. 
Model The Wind. 
Last night I listened to the wind. Sometimes it whined like a dog, 
then it gave a sort of a shrill whistle. That was followed by a hollow 
moaning, and then there was a loud rush like a waterfall. This ceased, 
and afterwards there was a mixture of whistling and hissing. At last, it 
died away in gentle murmurs. 
Objects to be described : — 
A choir. The sea. Singing of birds. 

A violin. Bells. Rustling of leaves. 

A trumpet. Thunder. Sounds in a bam-yard. 

A drum. Hail. Sounds in a street. 

EXERCISE VL — ALL THE SENSES. 
Direction. — Place the object before you, examine 
it carefully with all your senses in turn. Then write 
down the information which each organ has given you. 
Finish what you have learned from one sense, before 
you proceed to the next. 

Modd. A Pencil. 
1. My eyes tell me that the pencil is about five inches long and a 
quarter of an inch in thickness. Its shape is round like a pillar, quite flat 



STATEMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 249 

atone end, and tapering to a point at the other. Its color is a beantifal 
light brown with dark streaks. It is at present lying on a sheet of white 
paper, with an old pen on one side, and a short piece of red sealing-wax 
on the other. 

2. By feeling, I perceive its shape to be exactly that my eyes led me 
to suppose. But I ascertain something which my eyes could not teU; 
namely, that the pencil is as hard as this sealing-wax. It is smooth on 
one side, and rough on the other. 

3. When I put it to ray nostrils, I perceive that it has a very slight 
pleasant odor, Hke that of cedar-wood. 4. The taste is sweetish. 5. It 
utters no sound. 

Objects to be described : — 

A coin. A flower- A lemon. •A pen. 

An orange. An apple. A book, A ball. 

A watch. A shell. A thistle. A clock. 

EXEKCISE Vn. — STATEMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 

Direction". — Place an object before you. Try it 
with your* senses, as before. Then make experiments 
on it, and write down the result. 

Model. A Piece of India-rubber. 

This piece of India-rubber, or caoutchouc, is three inches long, two 
broad, and one thick. It is in shape a sort of solid oblong. Its color is 
nearly black, with whitish or grayish parts in the middle, while some por- 
tions of it seem somewhat brown. Its smell is strong and somewhat dis- 
agreeable. It has no peculiar ta>te, though some boys are fond of chewing 
it. I shall now make some experiments with it. While I hold one end, 
you must pull out the other. When you let go, it returns to its former 
shape. Then I find it is elastic. Next, I put a small piece into the flame 
of a candle, and I perceive it takes fire very readily, burning with brilliant 
light, white at the bottom, and red at the top, emitting a considerable 
quantity of black smoke. I therefore ascertain that it is inflaimnable. By 
putting it into water, I perceive it floats ; so its specific gravity must be 
less than that of water. I further observe that it does not diminish its 
bulk, from which I infer that it is insoluble in water. I have been infonned, 
however, that tar will dissolve it. I have found it very useful in rubbing 
out pencil-marks. 

According to direction and model, describe, — 



250 COMPOSITION. 

1. A Small Piece of Glass. 

Qualities, as proved by the senses. Size. Shape. Color. Weight 
Heat. Hardness. Smell. Taste. Experiments. — By breaking 
marking, &c. 

2. Coal. 

Qualities. — Size. Shape. Color. Weight. Experiments. — > 
With water, with fire, with a hammer. 

3. A Sheet of Paper. 

Qualities, — Size. Shape, fee. Experiments. — With -water, 
with fire, with paint, with pencil, with ink. 

4. Sealiii^-wax. 

Qualities. — Shape. Size. Color. Weight, &c. Experiments. 
— With flame, with water, &c. 

EXERCISE VII.— SOURCES OF THINGS. 
DiKECTioif. — Place an object before you. Think 
from what source it came. If you do not know, ask 
your teacher or consult a book. Then put down all 
that you have heard. Add an account of its appear- 
ance, qualities, &c. Your description may conclude 
with some experiments. 

Model. A Piece of Lead. 

The substance before me is a metal called lead. I procured this piece 
at the plumber's, and he bought it of the owner of the lead-works. Lead is 
obtained by melting the ore, which is dug out of mines by men employed for 
that purpose. Lead is bluish white, very bright when cut or newly melted ; 
but it becomes dull and dim after it has been in the air for some time. It 
has no taste, but if you rub it you will perceive a slight smell. It is very 
soft, and may be hammered into thin plates. It is easily melted, as you 
may prove by putting a piece into the fire. 

Objects to be described : — 

1. A Piece of Bread. 

Suggestions. — Baker, oven, flour; ww7?er, mill, stream, horses, water; 
farmer, ground, plough, harrow, horses, men, sun, rain, harvest, thrashing 
winnowing -, soft, white, sweet, wholesome, nutritious. 

2. A Coat. 

Suggestions. — Tailor, cloth, merchant, manufacturer, wool, dyeing 



PARTS OF THINGS. 251 

epmning, weaving; wool-grower, sheep-washing, shearing. Shape, color, 
quality, &c. 

3. Sugar. 

Suggestions. — Grocer, merchant, ship, sailors, oven; West Indies, 
plantation, negroes, sugar-cane; refining. Shape, color, size, smell, 
taste, &c. 

4. Paper. 

Suggestions. — Stationers, paper-maker's mill, water or steam, rags, 
boiling, sizing, &c. ; rag-merchant, linen, flax, plant, mode of preparation, 
&e. Shape, size, color, quality. 

EXERCISE IX. — USES OF TfflNGS. 
DiEECTioi?". — Place the object before you, and think 
for what purpose it is usually employed. If you do not 
know, ask your teacher or consult a book. 

Model. A Piece of Lead. 

This metal is of very great use. Water-pipes, cisterns, and roofs of 
houses, are made of it. Chemists form two substances out of it, called red 
and white lead, both of which are poisonous. If we mix it with tin, the 
result is that useful compound called pewter, of which some table-spoons 
are made. When blended with antimony, it affords a composition firona 
■which printers' types are cast. 

Mention the uses of the following objects : — 

Iron and steel. Mahogany. Sheep. Wood. 

Cotton cloth. Leather. Water. Gold. 

Steam-engine. Silver. Glass. Cows. 

EXERCISE X. — PARTS OF THINGS. 
DrRECTiON. — Place the object before you. Inquire 
how it came there, say where you bought it, whence the 
merchant procured it, &c. Tell whether it is natural or 
artificial, describe its parts, &c. 

Model. A Penknife. 
There is a penknife on the table before me. I bought it at the cut- 
ler's. He either made it himself or procured it of the manufacturer. It 
consists of two parts, each formed of a different substance. The handle is 
of horn, probably that of a stag. It is of a brown color, rough and hard. 



252 COMPOSITION. 

It has several small rivets in it, for the purpose of holding its sides to« 
gether. On one side there is a small plate, on which the owner's name 
may be engraven. The second substance is steel, of which the blade is 
composed. Steel is an artificial metal, the result of iron prepared with 
charcoal. It is very hard and smooth. When properly tempered, it makes 
very sharp blades. 

Treat according to the direction and model — 

1. A Room. 

Suc/gesiions. — Floor-boards, carpet-maker, pattern, color, texture, size, 
Bhaps, walls, plaster, paper, color, figure, quality. 

2. A Book. 

Suggestions. — Leaves, pages, margins, title-pages, edges, plates, wood- 
cuts, binding, author, printer, bookbinder, bookseller. 

3. A Eire-place. 4. An Inkstand- 

EXERCISE XI. — SIMPLE DESCRIPTION. 

Direction. — Select some subject about which you 
have or can get some definite information. Whatever the 
object, test it by your senses as far as the subject will ad- 
mit. Ascertain its parts, qualities, sources, uses, value, 
&G. If the object selected is a plant, inquire further in 
regard to its structure, classification, seed, propagation, 
and mode of growth. If the object is an animal, inquire 
still further in regard to its food, habits, movements, in- 
stinct, place of abode, means of defence, varieties, &c. 
Collect all your thoughts and classify them before com- 
mencing to write. 

Model. My Father's Horse. 

My father's horse is a large and powerful animal. His body and legs 
are covered with glossy black hair. He has one white foot, and has a white 
star in his forehead. His head is quite small. His nostrils are large and 
full. His eyes are of a dark hazel color. His ears are short and thin, and 
are generally erect. His neck is beautifully arched, and is surmounted by 
a long, thick mane. His tail is bushy, and so long that it almost sweeps 
the ground. 

My father bought him several years ago of a trader, who had obtained 
him of a farmer in Vermont. He is a proud and very courageous ani-. 
mal; but is, at the same time, gentle, kind, and faithful. He can walk. 



NARRATION. 253 

trot, canter, and run. When father puts the baby on his back, he is very 
careful not to move fast ; but when I am mounted on him, he canters as 
fast as I desire to have him. We feed him on oats and hay. He does not 
like corn, but will eat bits of bread and apples from my hand. He some- 
times sleeps while standing, but more frequently lies down to rest. When- 
ever I turn him into the pasture, he runs about as though he was crazy 
with joy. When provoked, he attempts to bite and kick. He knows a 
great many things as well as I do, and, on a dark night, can find his way 
home without any guidance. 

I have been informed that horses were originally brought from Asia, 
and that no horses are native to this country, although there are many 
droves of wild horses on the prairies. The Arabian horse is the best for 
speed, but the English cart-horse is the largest and stoutest. On account 
of his speed and strength, the horse is very useful as a beast of bm'den. 

According to the direction and model, describe, — 

1. My writing-desk. 

Suggestions. — Parts, legs, sides, lid, compartments; qualities, shape, 
size, color, &c. ; material, uses, value. 

2. A cherry-tree. 

Suggestions. — Parts, trunk, roots, branches, leaves, &c.; blossoms, 
fruit, seed, propagation, growth, uses, &c. 

3. A cow. 



stions. — Parts, head, body, legs, &c.; color, size, food, habits, 
qualities, place of abode, means of defence, use, age. 

4. Our class-room. 6. An oak-tree. 8. An elephant. 

5, A bird's nest. 7. A rose-bush. 9. An eagle. 

10. The house 1 4ive in. 11. England. 

EXERCISE XIL — NARRATION. 
DiEECTiois'. — Select for a theme some transaction or 
event with which you are familiar. Think over all the 
particulars connected with the event, and note them 
down. Select from these, — 1. Only those particulars 
that relate directly to the theme; 2. Only those which 
are necessary to convey all the information intended. 
Do not, however, omit any necessary particular. Ar- 
range the particulars in the order of time. In nar- 
rating, it is often necessary to describe the actors or 



254 COMPOSITION. 

scenes connected with the event, but the description 
should not be carried too far. Those themes should be 
first selected which relate to what the writer has seen, 
felt, heard, or dreamed ; then those may be taken which 
relate to the experience of others, to the history of na- 
tions, to changes in nature, or to purely imaginary 
events. 

Model. What I did to-day. 

I rose this morning at sunrise, and took a long walk into the country 
before breakfast. My spirits were buoyant, and everything I saw filled me 
with delight. The birds sang their sweetest songs, and the fields were cov- 
ered with beautiful flowers. I returned home just in time for my break- 
fast, which I ale with a hearty relish. After breakfast, I learned my lesson 
in History, and then went to school. At nine I recited the lesson which I 
had prepared, and devoted the time that remained before recess to my 
lesson in Arithmetic. At recess, we played ball, but I am sorry to say 
that our side was beaten. Then came my recitation in Arithmetic, which 
lasted until twelve. 

At noon, by permission of my parents, I dined with my cousins, and 
returned at two with them. The afternoon was pleasantly spent in study- 
ing and reciting grammar. I believe that I now understand something 
about verbs. 

After school, I harnessed the horse to the rockaway, and drove with 
my sisters to the river to see a new sloop launched. When all was ready, 
the master waved a flag, and the workmen knocked away the fastenings, 
and she slid like a duck into the water. Sister Ellen then hurried us home 
to tea, although neither Mary nor I felt hungiy in the least. After tea, wo 
went into the garden arbor, where I am now engaged in writing this. 

According to the du-ection and model, narrate, — 

1 . How I went a-fishing. 

Particulars. — Purchasing my hook and line, searching for bait, walk 
to the river, selection of a place, the first nibble, success, other incidents, 
return home. 

2. The story of King Alfred. 

Particulars. — His misfortunes, his employment as cowherd, direction 
to watch the baking of the cakes, his inattention, anger of the woman, his 
reply. 

3. History of a sheet of paper. 

Particulars. — Rags, paper-mill, bookstore, purchaser, use, present coa- 
ditioB. 



ANALYSIS. 255 

4. Travels of Dr. Kane. 7. Travels of a Humming-bird. 

5. Life of William Tell. 8. My Autobiography. 

6. Growth of Corals. 9. Story of Daniel Boon. 

10. Destruction of Tea in Boston Harbor. 



EXERCISE Xm.— ANALYSIS. 

Analysis is the division of the theme with reference 
to its class, or to the parts which compose it. Before 
analyzing, it is necessary to decide whether the theme 
should be considered as a class, or as a single object com- 
posed of separate parts. It is also necessary to deter- 
mine the object which you have in view in making the 
divisions. 

Thus the theme Plant may be divided, as a class, into Flowering Plants 
and Flowerless Plants; considered as a whole, it may be divided into root, 
stalk, branches, leaves. These principal divisions may be again subdivided. 

The following directions will afford aid : — 
Think long and patiently on the subject which you 
have chosen. Write down the leading thoughts as fast 
as they occur to you. Decide upon the object you have 
in view. Arrange your thoughts so as to present only 
a single theme. Have only one principle of division at 
a time. Select those particulars which are apphcable 
to the end in view. Arrange the particulars in their 
natural order; that is, in the order of resemblance to 
each other, or in the order of nearness in position. 
Arrange the subordinate parts under the principal divi- 
sions. Be careful not to omit any essential part of the 
division, or to introduce as principal that which is merely 
subordinate. 

Thorough analysis is of great service in aU depart- 
ments of composition, but especially so in description. 
When the analysis of the theme has been finished, such 



256 COMPOSITION. 

particulars may be added as tend to introduce the sub- 
ject, to sustain interest, or to produce conviction. The 
analysis and such added particulars form the skeleton of 
the composition. 

Analysis of Subjects. 

Theme. — The Horse. As a class the horse may be considered with 
reference to, — 

1. Race: Arabian, Spanish, mustang, wild, &c. 

2. Size : large, medium, small or ponies. 

3. Color: black, white, gray, spotted, &c. 

4. Uses : saddle, carriage, draught horses, &c. 

5. Movements : trotting, pacing, running, &c. 

These principal divisions may be enlarged by introducing the subor- 
dinate parts when appropriate; as, Arabian: 1. qualities, 2. habits, 3. pe- 
culiarities, 4. food, 5. place of abode, 6. means of defence, 7. history, &c. 
As a final step these subordinate parts may be again divided ; as. Qualities : 

1. faithful, proud, courageous ; 2. speed, 3. strength, &c. 

As a composite whole, the horse may be considered with reference to 
its parts: I. 1. head, 2. neck, 3. body, 4. legs, 5. tail; or, 11. 1. bones, 

2. muscles, 3. nerves, 4. skin. 

These principal divisions may be subdivided as in the preceding exam- 
ples. Of course it is not expected that all these particulars should bo 
embraced in a single essay. Only those should be taken " which are con- 
sistent with the end in view." 
Write a composition on 
The Arabian horse. The movements of horses. 

The Shetland pony. The utility of horses. 

A dray-horse. 

Subject. — Duties of children. 

1. Definition of duty. 4. Duty to their parents. 

2. Duty to themselves. 5. Duty to God. 

3. Duty to their fellows. 

These may be enlarged by enumerating the several duties, and specify- 
ing the reasons. 

Write a composition with the aid of this analysis. 

EXERCISE XIV. — THE COMPOSITION. 
When the analysis has been carefully finished, each 
division of it may be enlarged and its relations distinctly 



THE COMPOSITION. 257 

shown. Do not write merely to fill up the page; but 
take heed that each sentence have some thought in 
it pertaining to the subject under consideration. Avoid 
nonsense. 

I. Mechanical Execution-. — "Write on the first and 
third pages of each sheet. Leave a margin on the left- 
hand side three fourths of an inch wide. Write the 
subject on the first line. State whether your object is to 
describe, narrate, or prove the theme. Begin the first 
paragraph on the third line, one and a half or two inches 
from the left-hand edge. Make a distinct paragraph for 
every topic in the analysis, or at convenient breaks in 
the thought. Write legibly. Do not make blots or 
write words that require to be erased. When the com- 
position is written, fold the paper neatly. Put your 
name and the date on one side of the fold near the 
top. 

II. Grammatical Accuracy. — Guard against errors 
in spelling, in the use of capitals, in punctuation, and in 
syntax. Revise your manuscript carefully. 

III. Rhetorical Finish. — 1. After the first draught 
has been made and carefully revised, re-examine, as 
critically as possible, the mechanical execution, the 
orthogi*aphy, capitals, punctuation, and syntax of the 
whole. 2. Try to make each sentence stronger, clearer, 
and more harmonious. 8. Strike out unnecessary, un- 
meaning, and ill-sounding words. 4. Condense as much 
as possible. 6. Make the whole work as perfect as you 
can. 

IV. Now make a careful, coiTect, and clean transcript 
of your essay. 

17 



258 COMPOSITION. 

Abbreviations used in Correcting. 

0.= Orthography. P.= Punctuation. 

C. = Capitals. B jsd. = Redundancy. 

R.= Reconstruct. PI. = Pleonasm. 

T.= Tautology. Obs.= Obscure. 

N.= Nonsense. W.= Word to be changed 

S.= Syntax. V-= C) mission. 

EXERCISE XV. — SUGGESTIVE TOPICS. 

No one should attempt to write upon a subject which 
he does not understand; hence a young writer .should 
avoid abstract themes. He will also find it to his ad- 
vantage to select specific rather than general themes. 
Above all, he should always bear in mind that the object 
of composition is to express thought, not to multiply 
words. The preceding exercises are designed to de- 
velop thought, by suggesting inquiries as to parts, 
qualities, sources, and uses of things. These inquiries 
should be made whenever it is practicable, and, in addi- 
tion, the theme should be viewed in every possible rela- 
tion, so as to make the thought as exhaustive as possible. 
The following topics are added as a means of suggesting 
thought. Definitions. The relation of one subject to 
another; the circumstances of the persono concerned, 
the place, the time, the principles involved, the conse- 
quences and inferences, the purpose or design, compari- 
son with other similar themes, the truth or falsehood 
involved, the objections proposed, historical illustrations 
effects, conclusions drawn. 

Make analyses and then write compositions on the following themes: — 
The city in which I live. My right hand. 

The home of Washington. A swallow's nest. 

How to play ball. , The story of a looking-glass. 



LETTER-WRITING. 259 

The State in which I live. Description of a looking-glass. 

The story of Romulus and Remus. Female heroism. 

The story of Damon and Pythias. The trade- winds. 

The history of the steam-engine. The Argonauts. 

The effects of climate on character. The Pilgrims. 

The story of the Prodigal Son. On the last book that I read. 

How a fretful temper may be cured. 



EXERCISE XVI.— VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

The same idea may be expressed in different ways ; 
and it will be both useful and entertaining for the 
learner to practise such exercises as the following : — 
Modd. The soul is immortal. 

The soul will never die. 
The soul will never cease to exist. 
The soul will live forever. 
The soul is destined to an endless existence. 
Sentences for Practice. 
A wise son maketh a glad father. 
When we have finished our work, -we will play.' 
Intemperance is ruinous to the mind as well as to the body. 
A w-olf, let into the sheepfold, will devour the sheep. 
True religion teaches us to be gentle and affable. 
My fi-iend died last night, without a struggle or a groan. 
In the same way, write in your own language stories that you have 
read. Change into prose, extracts in poetical narration and description 
like the following : — 
Excelsior. — Longfellow. Burial of Sir John Moore. — Wolfe. 

Casablanca. — Hemans. Wreck of the Hesperus. — Longfellow. 

Well of St. Keyne. — Southey. The Pied Piper of Hamelin. — Browning. 

EXERCISE XVII. — LETTER -WRITING. 

Few kinds of composition demand more care than 
letter-writing, or usually receive so little. A letter 
should be written in an easy, natural manner, adapted 
to the age and attainments of the recipient, as well as 



260 COMPOSITION. 

the circumstances which call it forth. All letters should 
be courteous, truthful, and free from extravagant pro- 
fessions of esteem. Business letters should be brief and 
to the point, and should be answered as soon as practi- 
cable after they have been received. In the mechanical 
execution and grammatical accuracy, the utmost pains 
should be taken. When finished, the superscription 
should be very plainly and neatly written. Care should 
be taken not to apply to a person two titles meaning the 
same thing ; as, Mr. Robert Jones, Esq. Dr. E. Smith, 
M. D. In formal notes of invitation, both the invita- 
tion and answer should be written in the third person. 
The following is a proper example for imitation, in 
respect to the dating, beginning, and closing of a 
letter. 

Olney, June 16, 1769. 
My dear Friend: — 

I am obliged to you for your invitation, but being long accustomed to 
retirement, which I was always fond of, I am now more than ever unwill- 
ing to visit those noisy scenes which I never loved, and which I now abhor. 
I remember you with all the friendship I ever professed, which is as much 
as I ever entertained for any man. 

I love you and yours ; I thank you for your continued remembrance 
of me, and shall not cease to be their and your 

Affectionate friend, 

William Cowper. 
Joseph Hill, Esq. 

Write a letter announcing your intended visit to the country. Write 
a letter recommending a person as a good servant. Write a note request- 
ing a loan of twenty dollars. Write a real letter to some one of your 
friends. 



PAET YI. 

F R O S O ID Y. 



CHAPTER XVI. 

547. Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the 
laws of versification. 

548. Accent is a particular stress of voice laid on a 
certain syllable in a word; as on the syllable ban in 
abandon. 

Accent should not be confounded with Emphasis. Emphasis is a stress 
of voice on a word in a sentence, to mark its importance. Accent is a stress 
of voice on a syllable in a word. 

549. The Quantity of a syllable is the time which 
is required to pronounce it. A short syllable requires 
h'Uf the time of a long one. 

Kinds of Verse. 

550. A Verse consists of a certain number of ac 
cented and unaccented syllables, arranged according to 
certain rules. 

551. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound 
of one line with the last sound of another. 

552. Blank Verse is poetry without rhyme. 

553. A Stanza consists of several lines, and is some- 
times improperly called a verse. 

554. A Couplet, or distich [pronounced dis-ti7c\ 
consists of two poetical lines which make complete 
sense. 

261 



262. KINDS OP VERSE. 

555. A Foot, is a division of a verse consisting of 
two or three syllables. 

556. Metre is a measured arrangement of words in 
verses. 

557. Scanning is dividing a verse into the feet of 
which it is composed. 

SECTION I. 
Fe e t . 

558. The principal feet in English verse are the 
I-ara-bus, the Trochee (tro'-ke)^ the Spondee, each con- 
sisting of two syallables ; the Dac-tyl, the An-a-pest, and 
the Am-phi-brach, each consisting of three syllables. 

559. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, 
and the last accented ; as, betray^ consist. 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the 
last unaccented ; as, hateful^ pe'ttish. 

A Spondee has both syllables accented; as, fme 
we'll^ vast' weight'. • 

560. A Dactyl has the first syllable accented and 
the last two unaccented ; as, hap'pili/, fear' fully. 

An Anapest has the first two syllables unaccented, 
and the last accented ; as, contravene, acquiesce. 

An Amphibrach has the first and third syllables un- 
accented, and the second accented ; as, endeavor, re- 
dundant. 

561. Different kinds of verse are named from the 
foot that predominates in them, and are called Iambic, 
Trochaic, Dactylic, Anapestic, &c. The following lines 
from Coleridge's Metrical Lesson to his Son will illus- 
trate the different kinds of verse. 



IAMBIC VEKSE. 263 

" Tr6cliee | trips from | 16ng to ] short; 
From long to long in solemn sort, 
Slow Spon j dee stalks | strong foot, j yet ill able 
Ever to | come up with | Dactyl tri | s;f liable; 
lam [ bics march | from short | to long. 
With a leap j and a bound | the swift An ] apest thr6ng; 
One syllable long, with one short at each side, 
Amphibra | chys hastes with | a stately | stride." 

562. Verse containing diflferent kinds of feet is termed 
composite. 

SECTION II. 

Iambic Vekse« 

563. In reading Iambic verse, the accent is laid on 

tlie second syllable of each foot, — that is, on the even 

syllables; as, 

To me j the rose. 

Iambic verses may be divided into several varieties, 
according to the number of feet of which they are com- 
posed. 

I. The shortest form of Iambic verse in English 
consists of one Iambus, with an additional short sylla- 
ble; as, 

Disdain | ing, 
Complain | ing. 
Consent j ing, 
Repent | ing- 

We have no poem in this measure, but it is intermingled with other 
varieties in stanzas. 

II. The second form of Iambic verse is also too short 
to be continued through any great number of lines. It 
consists of two Iambuses. 

What place J is here ! 
What scenes | appear! 

It sometimes takes an additional short syllable. 

Up(3n j a mount | ain, 
Beside j a fount | ain. 



264 IAMBIC VEESE. 

III. The third foim consists of three Iambuses. 

In pla I ces far | or near, 
Or f4 I mou3 or | obsciire. 

It sometimes takes an additional short syllable. 

Our hearts J no Ion | ger Ian | guish. 

rV. The fourth form consists of four Iambuses. 
Four lines of this form constitute a stanza of Long 
Metre, 

Broad is [ the road | that leads | to death, 
And thou | sands walk | tog^th | er there; 
But wis I dom shows | a nar | row path, 
With h^re | and th^re | a trav | eller. 

V. The fifth foim consists oifive Iambuses. 

How loved, I how val | ued once | avails | thee n6t, 
To whom f relat | ed or | b^y whom | begot. 

This is called Heroic Measure. In its simplest form, 
it consists of five Iambuses ; but, owing to the admission 
of other feet, it appears in several different forms. 

VI. The sixth form of Iambic verse is commonly 
called Alexandrine Measure. It consists of six Iam- 
buses. 

For thou ( are but | of diist ; | be hiim | ble and | be wise. 

YII. The seventh and last form consists of severe 
Iambuses. 

The Lord | descend | ed frdm | above, j and bdwed | the hedv | ens high. 
This was formerly written in one line, but is now 
divided into two, the first containing four feet, and the 
second three ; as, 

The Lord | descend | ed from | above, 
And bowed | the heav | ens high. 

Four lines thus written constitute a stanza of Com- 
mon Metre. 

564. A stanza of Short Metre consists of four lines, the 
third of which contains four Iambuses, and the others 
contain three each. 



TROCHAIC VERSE. 265 

I love thy kingdom, Lord, 
The house of thine abode ; 
The church our blest Redeemer saved 
With his own precious blood. 

A stanza of Hallelujah Metre consists of eight lines. 
The first four contain three Iambuses each ; the last four, 
two Iambuses each. 

Welcome, delightful mom; 

Sweet day of sacred rest, 

I hail thy kind return ; 

Lord, make these moments blest: 
From low desires i I soar to reach 

And fleeting toys, | Immortal joys. 



SECTION III. 
Trochaic Veese. 
565. In reading Trochaic verse, the accent is laid on 
the first syllable of each foot, — that is, on the odd sylla- 
bles; as. 

On' the I mountain. 

The chief varieties of Trochaic verse are as fol- 
lows : — 

I. The shortest form consists of one Trochee and a 

long syllable. 

Tumult I cease, 

Sink to I peace. 
This measure is deficient in dignity, and can seldom be used in con- 
nection with serious subjects. 

II. The second form consists of two Trochees, and 
is likewise so brief that it is rarely used in serious 

poetry. 

On the I moiintain, 
By a I foiintain. 

It sometimes takes an additional long syllable. 

In the I days of | old, 
Fables | plainly | told. 
12 



266 ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

in. The third form consists of three Trochees. 

Wh^a our | hearts are | moilrning. 

It sometimes takes an additional long syllable. 

Restless I mortals | toil for | naught, 
Bliss in I vain from | earth is ( sought. 

rV. The fourth form consists oifour Trochees. 

Roiind us | roars the | tempest | loiider. 

It sometimes takes an additional long syllable. 

Idle I after | dinner | In his | chair, 
Sat a I fai-mer, | riiddy, | fat, and | fair. 
This measure is very uncommon. 

V. The fifth form is likewise uncommon. It is com- 
posed oijive Trochees. 

All that I walk on | fodt or | ride in | chariots, 
AH that I dw^ll in | pala | c6s or ( garrets. 

VI. The sixth form of Trochaic verse consists of six 
Trochees. 

On a I moiintain, | stretched be | neath a | hoary | vtIUow, 
Lay a | shepherd | swain, and | viewed the | rolling | billow. 
This seems to be the longest trochaic line in use. 



SECTION IV. 
Anapestic Vekse. 
566. In reading Anapestic verse, the accent is laid on 
the third syllable of each foot ; as, 

I would hide | with the beast | of the chase. 

The chief varieties of Anapestic verse are as fol- 
lows : — 

I. The shortest form consists of two Anapests. 

But his coiir | age 'gan fall, 
For no arts | could avail. 

This form admits of an additional short syllable. 

Then his coiir | age 'gan fall | him, 
For no arts J could avail | him. 



AMPHIBRACHIC VERSE. 267 

n. The second form consists of three Anapests. 

ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace 1 
To your de^p | est recess | es I fly ; 

1 would hide | with the beasts | of the chase, 

I would van | ish from ev | ery eye. 
This is a very pleasing measure, and much used both in solemn and 
lively style. 

III. The third form consists oifour Anapests. 

May I gov | em my pas | sions with ab | solute sway, 
And grow w:fe | er and b^t | ter as life | wears away. 

This measure will admit an additional short sylla- 
ble. 

On the warm | cheek of yodth, | smiles and rd | ses are bl6nd | ing. 



SECTION V. 

AsiPHiBRACHic Verse. 

567. In reading Amphibrachic verse the accent is laid 
on the second syllable of each foot ; as, 

Miss Flora | McFlimsey | of Madi j son Square. 

The chief varieties of Amphibrachic verse are as fol- 
lows : — 

I. The shortest form consists of one Amphibrach. 

Hearts beating Tears starting 

At meeting; At parting. 

II. The second form consists of two Amphibrachs. 

We 've beaten | all fo^men, 
We 've turned back | on no men. 

III. The third fonn consists of three Amphibrachs. 

A conquest | how hard and | how glorious. 

rV. The fourth form consists oifour Amphibrachs. 

[Thanks,] my 16rd, for | your venison; | for finer | nor fatter 
Ne'er r^ged in | the forest | nor smoked on | the platter. 



268 FIGURES. 

SECTION VI. 
Dactylic Versb. 
568. In reading Dactylic verse the accent is laid on 

the first syllable of each foot ; as, 

Whdre shall the | lover rest, '^ 

Whom the fates | sever. 

I. The first form consists of two Dactyls. 

Borne on her | northern pine, 
Long o'er the | foaming brine. 

II. The second variety consists of three Dactyls. 

Wearing a | way in his | yoiithfulness. 
Loveliness, | beauty, and | truthfulness. 

III. The third variety consists of four Dactyls. 

Boys will an | ticipate, | lavish, and | dissipate 
All that your | biisy pate | hoarded with | care. 

IV. The fourth variety is the Dactylic Hexameter, 
which consists of five Dactyls and one Spondee. 

Over the | mountain a | 16ft ran a | rush and a | roll and a | roaring, 
Downward the [breeze came in|dignaut and | leapt with a | howl to thelwAter. 



CHAPTER XVII. 



569. Poetry owes much of its effect to the peculiar 
style in which it is dressed. It indulges more freely than 
prose in figurative expressions, in contractions and trans- 
positions, in exclamations, antiquated words, and other 
]>eculiarities. 

570. These peculiarities are generally considered 
imder the head of Prosody. They may be divided into 
Figures of Etymology, Figures of Syntax, and Figures 
of Rhetoric. 



PIGUEES OP ETYMOLOGY. 269 

671. A Figure of Etymology is an intentional devia- 
tion from the usual fonn of a word. 

572. A Figure of Syntax is an intentional deviation 
from the usual construction of a word. 

573. A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional deviation 
from the usual application of a word. 



SECTION I. 

Figures of Etymology. 

574. The principal Figures of Etymology are Elis- 
ion^ Synoeresis^ Diaeresis, Paragoge, Prosthesis^ and 
Tmesis. 

575. Elisioj^" is the omission of part of a word. 

Elison includes, — 1. Aphceresis, or the omission of a letter or letters at 
the beginning of a word; as, Against for against, ^squire for esquire. 2. Syn- 
cope, or the omission of a letter or letters in the middle of a word; as, 
lisfning for listening, lov'd for loved. 3. Apocope, or the omission of a letter 
or letters at the end of a word ; as, th^ for the, tho^ for though. 

576. Stn^eesis is the contraction of two syllables 
into one ; as, seest for see-est, drowned for drown-ed. 

577. Di^EESis is the separation of two vowels that 
might form a dip thong; as, aerial, not mrial; cooperate, 
not cooperate. 

Diuresis is denoted by two dots placed over the latter of the two 
vowels, as in the examples just given. 

578. Paeagoge is the addition of a letter or letters at 
the end of a word ; as, without-en for without, bound-en 
for bound. 

579. Prosthesis is the prefixing of an expletive let- 
ter or letters; as, beloved for loved, a-down for down, 
y-clad for clad. 

5^0. Tmesis is the separation of a compound into 
its parts by some intervening word ; as, To us ward for 
toward us. 



270 PIGUEES OF SYNTAX. 

SECTION n. 
FiGUEEs OF Syntax. 

581. The principal Figures of Syntax are Ellipsis 
Pleonasm^ Enallage, and Hyperhaton, 

582. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words 
necessary to the construction of a sentence, but not to its 
meaning! 

Almost all sentences are more or less elliptical, as may be seen in the 
following examples : — 

1. Ellipsis of the noun ; as, The laws of God and man, — that is, The 
laws of God and the laws of man. 

2. Ellipsis of the pronoun ; as, I love and fear him, — that is, I love 
him and fear him. 

3. Ellipsis of the adjective ; as, A delightful garden and orchard, — that 
is, A delightful garden and a delightful orchard. 

4. Ellipsis of the verb ; as, The man was old and crafty, — that is. The 
man was old and the man was crafty. 

5. Ellipsis of the adverb ; as, He spoke and acted wisely, — that is, He 
spoke wisely and he acted wisely. 

6. Ellipsis of the preposition ; as, He went into the abbeys, halls, and 
public buildings; — into is omitted before halls and public buildings. 

7. Ellipsis of the conjunction ; as. They confess the power, wisdom, 
goodness, and love of the Creator; — and is omitted before wisdom and 
goodness. 

8. Ellipsis of the interjection ; as, pity and shame ! — that is, pity I 
and shame ! 

583. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are 
necessary either to the construction or the meaning ; as, 

Peace, virtue ! Peace is all thy own. 

584. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for 
another; as. 

The fearful hare limps awkward. 
They fall successive and successive rise. 

585. Hyperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, 

The muses fair, these peaceful shades among. 
He wanders earth around. 



FIGURES OP RHETORIC. 271 

SECTION III. 

riGXTEES OP EhETOEIC. 

586. The principal Figures of Rhetoric are Simile, 
Metaphor, Personification, Allegory, Metonymy, Vision, 
Apostrophe, Hyperbole, Synecdoche, Irony, Antithesis, 
and Climax. 

687. A Simile is an express and formal comparison of 
one object to another, and is generally introduced by like 
or as ; as, 

The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which 
every one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few. 
As from the wing no scar the sky retains, 
The parted wave no furrow from the keel, 
So dies in human hearts the thought of death. 

588. A Metaphor is an implied comparison, in which 
the term denoting the similitude is omitted ; as, 

I will be unto her a wall of fire round about. 

Thou art my rocJc and my fortress. 

Thy word is a lamp to my feet and a ligJit to my path. 

589. Peesonification-, or Prosopopceia, is that 
figure by which we attribute life, sex, or action to inani- 
mate objects; as, 

Jordan was driven back ! The mountains shipped like rams, and the 
little hills like lambs. 

Rome, for empire far renowned, 

Tramples on a thousand states ; 
Soon her pride shall kiss the ground — 
Hark ! the Gaul is at her gates. 

590. An Allegory is a continued metaphor ; for ex- 
amples, seeEzekiel xvii. 22-24, and Psalm Ixxx. 8-17. 

591. Metonymy is the substitution of one word for 
another; as the cause for the effect ; the container for the 
contained ; the sign for the thing signified ; the abstract 
for the concrete ; as. 

Gray hairs (i. e. old age) should be respected. 
The toper loves his bottle (i. e. the contents). 



272 FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

He gained the palm. 

We wish Labor to be respected. 

592. Vision is a figure by which something imaginary 
is represented as real, and present to the senses ; as, 

I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the 
capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before 
me the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their 
ruined country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, 
while, with a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miseries. 

593. Apostrophe is turning off fi-om the regular 
course of the subject, to address some person or thing; 
as, 

Soul of the Just ! Companion of the Good. 
Osun! thy everlasting light. 

594. Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing 
a thing beyond the truth ; as, 

I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice; his spear, the blasted fir; his 
shield, the rising moon; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the 
hUl. 

695. Synecdoche is putting the name of the whole 
of anything for a part, or a part for the whole ; as the 
waves for the sea, the roof for the house, the head for the 
person, &c. 

596. Irony is the intentional use of words in a sense 
contrary to that which the writer or speaker intends to 
convey. 

The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal, "mocked 
them and said. Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is talking, or he is 
pursuing, or is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be 
awaked." 

597. Antithesis is the placing of opposites in con- 
trast; as. 

If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to 
dininish his desires. 

Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain. 
Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS. 273 

598. Climax is a figure in which the sentiment rises 
in regular gradation ; as, " Add to your faith virtue ; and 
to virtue, knowledge; and to knowledge, temperance;" 
&c. See2Pet. i. 5-7. 



REVIEW QUESTIONS ON PART VL 

547. Of what does prosody treat? 548. What is accent? With 
what must accent not be confounded ? What is the difference between 
accent and emphasis? 549. What is quantity? 550. Of what does a 
verse consist ? 551. What is rhyme? 552. What is blank verse? 553. 
What is a stanza? 554. A couplet? 555. Afoot? 556. What is metre? 
657. What is scanning ? 

558. Name the principal feet in English verse. 559. What is an 
iambus? A trochee? A spondee? 560. What is a dactyl? An ana- 
pest? An amphibrach ? 561. How are different kinds of verse named? 
What is iambic verse? Trochaic verse? Anapestic verse? 562. What 
is composite verse? 563. In reading iambic verse, where is the accent 
laid? How may iambic verses be divided? Describe each variety, and 
give an example of each. 564. What is a stanza of short metre ? A 
stanza of hallelujah metre? 565. In reading trochaic verse, where is the 
accent laid? Describe each variety of trochaic verse, and give an ex- 
ample of each. 566. In reading anapestic verse, where is the accent laid? 
Describe each variety of anapestic verse, and give an example of each. 
667. In reading amphibrachic verse, where is the accent laid ? Give an 
example of each variety of amphibrachic vei-se. 568. In reading dactylic 
verse, where is the accent laid? What is the dactylic hexameter? Give 
examples of each variety of dactylic verse. 

569- To what does poetry owe much of its effect? 570. How are fig- 
ures divided? 571. What is a figure of etymology ? 572. What is a figure 
of syntax? 573. What is a figure of rhetoric? 574. Name the principal 
figures of etymology ? 575. What is elision ? What does elision include? 
What is aphseresis? What is syncope? What is apocope? 576. What 
is synaeresis? 577. What is diaeresis? How is diaeresis denoted? 578. 
What is paragoge ? 579. What is prosthesis ? 580. What is tmesis? 

581. Name the principal figures of syntax. 582. What is ellipsis? 
Give an example of the ellipsis of a noun. Of a pronoun. Of an adjec- 
tive. Of a verb. Of an adverb. Of a preposition. Of a conjunction. 
Of an interjection. 583. What is pleonasm ? 584. What is enallage ? 585. 
What is hyperbaton ? 

586. Name the principal figures of rhetoric. 587. What is a simile? 
588. V7hat is a metaphor? 589. What is personification? 590. What is 
an allegory? 591. What is metonymy? 592. What is vision? 593. 
Wbat is apostrophe? 594. What is hyperbole? 595. What is synec- 
doche? 596. What is irony? 597. What is antithesis? 598. What is 
climax ? 

18 



274 



SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS. 






I £5 1 



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a Ph 
1. ° ►^ 



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Is 






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from 
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an ur 
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ammatical 

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sents 
a) native 




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AL Subject. 

Modifiers of (he Gra 
the king, 

the Marquis of Cadiz, 
in battle 

in algebraic expressions, 
the printer. 


o 






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2 


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SYNOPSIS OP GRAMMATICAL BELATIONFJ. 



275 






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ri e«eo^ MJ <0 «• «d ^ 



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An adjective may be modified,— 

1. By an adverb ; as. Very rich. 

2. By a verb in the infinitive ; as. 

Pleasant to behold. 

3. By an adjunct; as. True <o wo- 

ture. 

4. By another adjective; as. 

Bright red. 

5. By a phrase; as, M general 

successful. 


Adverb. 
An adverb may be modified, — 

1. By another adverb; as. Most 

assuredly. 

2. By an adjunct; as. Agreeably 

to nature ; Most of all. 


o 

H 
<1 
P 
i-i 
1^ 

ft 

c 


Verb, Participle. 
A verb or participle may be 
modified, — 

1. By a noun in the objective case. 

If the verb is transitive ; as. 
The sun gives light. 

2. By a verb in the infinitive ; as. 

He hopes to return. 

3. By an adjunct; as, I walk in 

the grove. 

4. By a clause; as, I hope that 

you are well. 

5. By an adverb; as. The wind 

hlows'violently. 

6. By a phrase; as, M vain he 

labors. 

7. By a quoted sentence ; as, Bion 

said, '■'■Know thyself." 



1 


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dlog 
bute 

s'itioi 
whict 
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and 
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ammatical an 
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leading propo 
the parts of 
posed, and th 
the adjuncts 
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tsgi 
ts gl 
tsco 
the) 
the 
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out 
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State i 
State i 
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and 
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arc 
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the 




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position ai 
L Compoui 
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jting word 



APPENDIX. 



ANALYSIS BY DIAGRAMS. 

Diagrams may be advantageously used as an aid to 
the process of analysis. The accompanying are recom- 
mended as possessing the following merits : — 

1. Each element in the sentence has a distinct sign. 

2. The office of each element is distinctly shown. 

3. The mutual relations of the elements may be com- 
prehended at a glance. 

4. By the use of diagrams a great saving of labor and 
time is effected. 

The lesson should be neatly mapped out on paper by 
the pupil, before recitation, and handed in to the teacher 
as a regular exercise. In recitation, a part of the class 
should be employed at the blackboard, and the rest 
engaged in revising the work performed, or in oral 
analysis. 

The teacher should bear in mind that diagrams are 
only aids to analysis, and, to be made profitable, must 
always be combined with oral recitations. A very little 
practice will suffice to famiharize the pupils with the 
forms. 

276 



APPENDIX. 277 

Diagrams for Analysis, 
— = A substantive element in the nominative or 

objective. 
I] = A verb in the indicative or potential mode. 



L J = A verb in the subjunctive mode. 

L J = A verb in the infinitive mode. 

I 1 = A participle. 

A transitive verb or participle is indicated by a diag- 
onal line ; as, j^-^^^^-j |^~^C!^^ >^^ . . An intran- 
sitive verb is indicated by the omission of this sign. 

■ = A relative pronoun. 

CN^ = A co-ordinate conjunction. 
^^ = A subordinate conjunction. 
V = A conjunctive adverb. 

= An adjective, an adverb, or a norm La the 



/^ = A predicate adjective. 
'I^^^I^ZZH = Two nouns in apposition. 



" ™J = -A. noun or a verb modified by an 
\ adjunct. 



\ 



= A curved line connecting the 



subject and predicate nominatives. 

Words supplied are expressed by dotted lines* 



278 APPENDIX. 

t= A curved line used to divide the lo^cal subject 
from the logical predicate, or to separate propo- 
sitions. 

>- = A brace used to connect elements of the same con- 

3 struction. 

A substantive clause or phrase is indicated by a line 
drawn above or below it. An adjective or an adverbial 
clause or phrase is indicated by its position. The method 
of using the diagrams can be readily learned from the 
models. 

Simple Sentences. 
1. Birds fly. ' 2. John reads his book, 

3. Franklin was a philosopher. 

franklin/Iw^ philosopher. 

4. Some horses are strong. 



^^ 




5. Franklin, the printer, became a famous philosopher* 




APPENDIX. 



279 



6. The neglected son of a tallow-chandler in Boston 
astonished the whole world by the discoveries of his ma- 
ture age. 




7. To steal is to break the law. 

|1^STEAL|/|lsl\[Tr-B^ LAN/. 



8. John and Mary recite grammar and history, 
jjoHN \ /"grammar 

MARY y ^i HISTORY, 



9. Tempted by pleasure, he soon forgot the lessons of 
his youth. 




280 APPENDIX. 



Complex Sentences* 

10. You will depart with but a small retinue, said the 
baronet. 



% ( 



<i^ 



J3AR0NEt\ [^^ YOU {WILL DEPART^ 
) % 



%>. 



%^-^^o. 



11. I will tell you what you must do. 

( ( YOU 

•"") ] q what YOO iMTJSi^^oal WHAT 

Note. — Divide the sign for the relative C , to show hoth 

its connective and substantive power. The direct object of tell is 
the substantive clause, what you must do. The indirect object is you 

12. Make hay while the sun shines. 



THOU [ [TMll HAY 



S2«/sgSi 



13. He owns the place where I was boriK 

BE \ |dWN^ PLACE 

J, IWAS BORN^ 



APPENDIX. 281 

14. If he do but touch the hills, they shall smoke. 



THEY [SHALL SMOKE I 



W HE |^?^SUG^ HfLLg. 



Compound Sentences'. 

15. The heavens declare the glory of God, and the 
firmanent showeth his handiwork. 

% ■% f % ^* 

HEAVENS iDEgfcABEl SLORY Q«&) FIRMAMENT ISROVSial PANOIWORK. 




16. Alexander, being fired with ambition, determined 
to conquer the world ; but, at last, Death overcame even 
him. 



3% 



ALEXANDER ["PFTE^MINEal ^sS^^"^ WORLD ^sl^ DEATH j'ovgFre^VMSj fllNj 



WITH ANIBITIOW 

17.1 have been young, but now am old ; yet have I 
never seen the righteous forsaken, nor his seed begging 
bread. 

( -^ % (^, 

\ I HAVE BEEN | ^ V^ RIGHTEOUS 



I J^M I y ^ SEED 



282 APPENDIX. 

18. The book that you lent me has been mislaid, and 
I do not know where you can find it. 



THE END, 



I 



